American and French Revolutions: A Historical Timeline
The American Revolution (1775-1783)
The thirteen colonies were expected to pay taxes to Britain, but rarely did. Colonists argued against taxation without representation in the British Parliament. In 1774, representatives from the thirteen colonies convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The British were defeated at Lexington in 1775.
The War of Independence ensued (1775-1783). Thomas Jefferson, a key figure in the American Revolution, penned the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. The United States Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776.
This led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which Britain recognized the independence of the United States. The Constitution of 1787 established the new political order, with George Washington becoming the first president.
The French Revolution (1789-1799)
Financial difficulties worsened, and in 1788, the French monarchy declared bankruptcy. The king was compelled to convene the Estates-General. Amidst political turmoil, the Estates-General met at Versailles in the spring of 1789.
The king and the privileged classes attempted to expel the deputies from their meeting hall. The deputies, however, gathered at a nearby tennis court and swore an oath to remain assembled until they had drafted a constitution. This assembly became known as the National Constituent Assembly. On July 14, 1789, fueled by rising bread prices and rumors of the king amassing troops in Paris, Parisians stormed the Bastille.
The Old Regime (1789-1792)
To dismantle the Old Regime, the decree abolishing feudal rights was adopted on August 4, 1789. On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted. The administration was decentralized, dividing France into 83 departments and increasing the importance of municipalities.
The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
The Constitution of 1791 marked the triumph of the upper bourgeoisie. The new assembly (1791-1792) was dominated by moderates. With the granting of property to emigrants and the expulsion of clergy who refused to pledge allegiance to the Constitution, their position became increasingly difficult. The royal family attempted to flee France in June 1791 but was apprehended at Varennes and imprisoned in Paris.
The Girondin Convention (1792-1793)
The beginning of the Republic ushered in a popular and radical phase of the revolution. While the new political system was still being organized, the September Massacres occurred. Sans-culottes raided Parisian prisons and killed imprisoned clergy and aristocrats. The French victory at Valmy on September 20, 1792, seemed to ease tensions. Elections were held for a new assembly, the National Convention, which was controlled by the moderate Girondin Republicans and the more radical Jacobin Montagnards.
The Convention tried Louis XVI for treason, and he was guillotined on January 21, 1793.
The Montagnard Convention and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
Fear of the revolution’s defeat led to a sans-culottes coup against the Girondins in June 1793. The Montagnards, led by Robespierre, seized power. They drafted a new democratic constitution that recognized popular sovereignty and universal male suffrage. Marat’s assassination made him a sans-culottes martyr.
The Directory and the End of the Revolution (1795-1799)
To prevent another dictatorship, a moderate government was established, which drafted a new constitution, the Constitution of the Year III. It established a liberal regime based on national sovereignty and the separation of powers. As a moderate regime, it introduced a census-based suffrage system, and legislative power was divided between two chambers. Executive power resided with a five-member Directory.
Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup of 18 Brumaire overthrew the Directory.
The Napoleonic Era (1799-1815)
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) rose to power. The Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar in 1805. In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain, initiating the Peninsular War. When Russia broke its alliance with France and resumed trade with Britain, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812 ended in defeat. The Allies reached Paris, and Napoleon abdicated on April 6, 1814, and was exiled to Elba. He returned to power for the Hundred Days but was decisively defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
The Congress of Vienna (1815) and its Aftermath
The Congress of Vienna reshaped the political landscape of Europe. The Holy Alliance, formed by Prussia, Russia, and Austria (and later joined by France), defended the alliance of throne and altar. The Quadruple Alliance, comprising Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, aimed to uphold the settlements of the Congress of Vienna.
A New Wave of Revolutions (1820-1848)
Liberalism in the first half of the 19th century rejected absolutism. Nationalism emerged from the Napoleonic expansion. In Spain, the return of Ferdinand VII led to the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823), during which Spanish liberals compelled the king to swear allegiance to the Constitution of 1812.
The Revolutions of 1848
The wave of revolutions began in France. The increasingly corrupt regime of Louis-Philippe was overthrown in February 1848, leading to his expulsion and the proclamation of the Second Republic. The 1848 Constitution was drafted. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president and later proclaimed the Second French Empire in 1852.
Latin American Independence
Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) was instrumental in the independence movements of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Panama.