Alfonso XIII’s Reign: Instability, Nationalism, and Dictatorship
Politics During Alfonso XIII’s Reign (1902-1931)
In 1902, at the age of 16, Alfonso XIII began his reign, marked by the aftermath of the Disaster of ’98, political instability, and the rise of nationalist movements.
The Disaster of ’98
The Disaster of ’98 wounded the army’s pride, as it was blamed for the loss of the colonies. The army also perceived Spain as fractured due to peripheral nationalisms.
Political Instability
Alfonso XIII faced significant political instability due to a negative view of the system (perceived as corrupt), unstable governments, high electoral abstention, and internal divisions within parties. Key leaders included Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canalejas (Liberal).
Despite the instability, some reforms were introduced, such as the electoral reform law to control caciquism (1907) and a proposed reform of local administration. The Liberals promoted the Law of the Lock (1910), prohibiting new religious orders, and reforms to avoid military service through payment, the law of associations (1912) and tax reforms.
The Rise of Catalan Nationalism
The consolidation of nationalism in Catalonia began with the creation of the Regionalist League in 1901. They achieved success in Barcelona’s municipal elections with the ‘Four Presidents’ bid (Robert Bartholomew, Albert Rusiñol, Lluis Domenech i Muntaner, and Sebastian Torres). However, the party faced challenges from Republican forces, worker strikes, and internal disagreements, leading to a split.
The more leftist members formed the National Centre for Catalan (CNR) in 1906. Another major party was the Radical Republican Party, created in 1908 by Alexander Lerroux, with an anticlerical, antimonarchist, revolutionary, and antinationalist stance. Lerroux gained support from the working class, particularly immigrants.
In 1905, a joke in the Catalan weekly Cu-Cut, critical of the military, led to a raid by officers. This resulted in a law giving jurisdiction to military courts for offenses against the military. In response, the Catalan Solidarity coalition was formed to overturn the law and seek autonomy. They won 41 of 44 seats in Congress in 1907, but internal conflicts led to the coalition’s dissolution in 1909.
The Tragic Week
The Tragic Week (July 26 to August 1, 1909) began with a strike against the war in Morocco. Anarchist-led protests resulted in the burning of religious buildings. The government sent troops, leading to 2,000 people fleeing to France and 2,500 arrests. Among those executed was Francesc Ferrer i Guardia, despite a lack of evidence.
These events led to the breaking of Catalan Solidarity, the resignation of Maura, and discredited politicians. Republican forces merged with the Catalan Center to form the Republican National Federal Union (UFNR).
In 1914, despite the failure of the Pact of Sant Gervasi, the League emerged victorious and was recognized as the leading force in Catalan politics. Led by Enric Prat de la Riba, the League launched the ‘Commonwealth’ project, achieved in 1913, allowing the pooling of provincial councils. The Commonwealth, established in 1914, was an administrative body with a degree of autonomy, aiming to modernize Catalonia. It created infrastructure, public services, and promoted Catalan language and culture.
In 1917, the Republican Party was formed, led by Francesc Layret and Lluis Companys. In 1918, the League’s autonomy proposal was rejected in Madrid. In 1919, Macià founded the Nationalist Democratic Federation, a precursor to the Catalan State party. In 1922, Antoni Rovira i Virgili founded the centrist Catalan Action party.
The Moroccan War
In 1909, Rif troops defeated the Spanish army, leading to the mobilization of reservists. The war was supported by the army, some politicians, and mining companies, but opposed by the majority of the population.
World War I and its Aftermath
Spain remained neutral during World War I, which led to increased demand for Spanish products. However, the rise in prices and the deterioration of living standards for the working class led to social unrest. The Russian Revolution inspired the working class, leading to government repression.
After the war, the right of peoples to self-determination was recognized, but social divisions and unemployment led to conflicts between 1919 and 1923.
The Triple Crisis of 1917
In 1917, a triple crisis (military, political, and social) destroyed the Restoration system. The military crisis was caused by instability, excess officers, and low salaries. The formation of Defence Boards led to the closure of courts. The political crisis was a reaction to the closure of the courts, with the Parliamentary Assembly demanding a provisional government and regional decentralization. The social crisis was triggered by the precarious situation of the working class, leading to strikes and a revolutionary general strike in 1917, which was repressed by the army.
These shocks led to short-lived governments and further worsened living standards, causing farmer revolutions between 1918 and 1921. Labor unrest led to the creation of the Workers’ Solidarity Organization in 1907, which became the anarcho-syndicalist union CNT in 1911. The CNT aimed to achieve independence for the working class and overthrow capitalism. The 1919 Canadian strike paralyzed 70% of Barcelona’s industrial production, leading to improved wages and working conditions.
Armed Gunmen
This strike led to a period of social unrest known as the ‘armed gunmen’ era, characterized by repression, lock-outs, and violence against union leaders and employers.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
After the loss of the war in Morocco in 1921, Miguel Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship in 1923, supported by the king, conservative sectors, and the Catalan bourgeoisie. The dictatorship aimed to end the gunmen, anarchism, the fear of Bolshevism, the old political system, the nationalist movement, and the war in Morocco.
The opposition to the dictatorship came from the middle classes, nationalists, socialists, and republicans. The dictatorship lasted seven years, divided into a military directory (1923-1925) and a civil directory (1925-1930). The military directory dissolved the courts, banned political parties and trade unions, and ended the war in Morocco. The civil directory created the National Consultative Assembly in 1927.
The dictatorship’s economic policy included protectionism and state aid to employers, leading to state indebtedness. Repressive policies were implemented against Catalan nationalism, including the closure of Catalan institutions. The fall of the dictatorship was caused by the loss of support and the economic crisis of 1929. Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930.
The Fall of the Monarchy
The government passed to Damaso Berenguer, who wanted to return to the previous regime, but this was impossible. Republican forces agreed to remove the monarchy and proclaim the Republic in the Pact of San Sebastian. Municipal elections on April 12, 1931, were won by Republican forces. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed, and the King went into exile. In Barcelona, Francesc Macia proclaimed the Catalan Republic within the Iberian Federation.