19th Century Global Transformations: Key Historical Events
The Congress of Vienna: Creation & Objectives
After Napoleon’s defeat and exile to the island of Saint Helena, the victorious countries met at the Congress of Vienna.
At the meeting, the following objectives were proposed:
- Restore absolutism under a new name: legitimism. Kings were considered the only legitimate rulers.
- Create an alliance, called the Holy Alliance, between the absolutist monarchs to protect them from any attempted revolutions.
- Restore the boundaries on the map of Europe, which had changed dramatically during the Napoleonic Era.
Understanding Nationalism: Definition & Causes
Nationalism describes a group of inhabitants who share a common language, ethnicity, customs, or mentality.
Nationalists demanded the creation of new nations and their right to possess a territory or system of self-government; in other words, to become a state.
Causes of Nationalism
- Both Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna had organized the map of Europe based on the interests of monarchs and emperors, without taking the inhabitants’ views into account. As a result, many people felt that their territories were being occupied by others, and this led to nationalism.
- The Romantic culture of the 19th century highlighted the sense of belonging to a people as an important human sentiment. People became more interested in myths and legends about their origins.
- The economy and industrialization of the 19th century meant that more unified countries enjoyed greater economic growth. Nationalism was therefore no longer solely a revolutionary movement, but also a conservative one.
Types of Nationalism
- Unifying nationalism
- Dividing nationalism
Agricultural & Demographic Revolutions Explained
Agricultural Revolution
In this revolution, several new methods were applied:
- Fallow land was replaced by continuous crop rotation.
- New crops that helped to revitalize the soil and could be used as fodder for livestock were introduced.
- Manure produced by livestock was used as a natural fertilizer.
- Iron tools became more widespread, and more plough horses were used.
- From the end of the 18th century, agricultural productivity increased thanks to irrigation, chemical fertilizers, and mechanization.
Demographic Revolution
The European population grew significantly, increasing from 110 million to 450 million inhabitants. This large increase was due to improvements in nutrition and reduced death rates, particularly the infant mortality rate. During this period, life expectancy increased from 30 years to 60 years. This revolution had two main effects, which are:
- It contributed to the industrial development period.
- It led to the redistribution of the European population.
The Second Industrial Revolution: Scope & Impact
Throughout the 19th century, technological advances gradually led to new methods of industrial manufacture. Towards the end of the century, the steam engine era ended, and the Second Industrial Revolution began.
No, it did not take place in all countries of the world simultaneously. It started to be adopted in almost all of Europe and beyond. New pioneering countries included Germany, the United States, and Japan.
Distinguishing Upper & Middle Classes
- Upper Class: This class consisted of the old Ancien Régime nobility, who had lost their privileges but kept their large areas of land, and the wealthy middle class. The wealthy middle class included bankers, industrialists, and merchants, among others.
- Middle Class: This class grew as the economy developed. Technical and scientific advances led to the growth of liberal professions amongst the middle class: teachers, lawyers, economists, etc.
The Boxer Rebellion Defined
This rebellion was the result of Chinese opposition to the policies imposed by foreign powers in China. The aim was to expel the colonists.
What is a Cartel?
A cartel is an association of manufacturers or suppliers with the purpose of maintaining prices at a high level and restricting competition.
Suffragism & Feminism: A Quest for Equality
At the end of the 19th century, there continued to be great inequality between men and women. Although men had achieved the right to vote thanks to the successive liberal revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848, women had not.
Because of these injustices, women, especially in Great Britain, began to form groups calling for gender equality. Their main demand at the time was the right to suffrage, or the vote.
Until the First World War, the suffragists achieved very little. Only a few Nordic states recognized women’s right to vote. At the end of the Great War, other nations began to recognize women’s right to vote.
Imperialism: Causes & Global Consequences
Causes of Imperialism
- Industrial development required new raw materials that were sometimes found in territories very far away from Europe.
- Intense population growth in Europe led to more overseas emigration.
- Ideological and cultural factors also played a role. Europe wanted to civilize the rest of the world, in some cases with a feeling of racial superiority.
Consequences of Imperialism
- The way in which territories were divided, especially in Africa, was based on the interests of the occupying powers and not on local factors.
- Colonial expansion consolidated inequalities in the global production of goods.
- Colonization significantly altered the social structure of the indigenous populations.
The Bismarckian Alliance System & Its Members
- First System: Known as the League of the Three Emperors, this was an alliance between the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian empires.
- Second System: Bismarck made a bilateral agreement with Austria (Dual Alliance). Italy later joined the agreement, forming the Triple Alliance. Bismarck also revived the League of the Three Emperors.
- Third System: The German Chancellor reinforced the Triple Alliance and signed the Reinsurance Treaty with the Russian Tsar. This treaty guaranteed Russian neutrality in the event of an attack by France. Bismarck also signed the Mediterranean Agreements with Great Britain, Italy, Austria, and Spain.