16th-Century Spanish Monarchy: Conflicts, Power, and Renaissance
1. Internal Conflicts: Communities and Germanies
The beginning of Charles I’s reign coincided with major riots in two kingdoms: Castile and Valencia.
a) Revolt of the Communities of Castile (1520)
This revolt began in Castilian cities against the royal government due to the prioritization of European affairs over Castilian interests (Flemish appointments, special taxes for imperial election debt, etc.). After extraordinary taxes were imposed, city representatives revolted. Local governments were replaced by communities—governments formed by direct representatives of the people, artisans, gentry, and lower clergy.
The commoners demanded the king’s return to Castile, the retention of precious metals, the exclusion of foreigners from administration, and a greater parliamentary role in government.
The conflict escalated when peasants revolted against the nobility, prompting the nobility to join the king in suppressing the revolt. In 1521, the commoner army was defeated at the Battle of Villalar.
b) Germanies Revolt in Valencia (1520)
This revolt began when Valencian artisans requested to arm themselves against pirate attacks. However, the agermanados soon opposed noble rule and created a new municipal government. The revolt spread, and the nobility joined royal forces to defeat the agermanados in 1521.
2. The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Under Philip II, the Hispanic kingdoms gained prominence, with the court established in Madrid. Philip II faced three main problems:
a) Revolt of the Netherlands
This revolt stemmed from the spread of Protestantism and Flemish elites’ rejection of taxes and royal authoritarianism. Persecution of Protestants led to a general rebellion in 1566. After harsh repression, the Netherlands was divided:
- Northern provinces (mostly Protestant) fought an 80-year war for independence.
- Southern provinces (Catholic) returned to Philip II’s rule.
b) War against the Ottoman Empire
In 1571, the Ottoman Empire, allied with Venice and the Pope, was defeated at the Battle of Lepanto, halting Ottoman expansion.
c) War against England
Discord arose from Queen Elizabeth I’s Protestantism, English support for Dutch rebels, and English piracy against Spanish ships. In 1588, Philip II’s attempt to invade England with the Spanish Armada failed disastrously.
3. Iberian Union
Under Philip II, Portugal joined the Hispanic Monarchy, completing Iberian unity. After the death of King Sebastian of Portugal, Philip II claimed the throne. Despite support, some resisted, leading to a military invasion. In 1580, Philip II became King of Portugal, recognized by Portuguese courts. This added Portugal’s vast empire to the Hispanic Monarchy, though it was a dynastic union, with Portugal retaining its laws and institutions. This union, combined with the colonial empires of Castile and Portugal, made Philip II the most powerful monarch of his time.
4. The Habsburg Political Model
The political system had two key characteristics:
- Federal character: Each kingdom maintained its institutions, laws, and liberties, lacking true political unity.
- Polysynodic system: Government based on various councils handling specific matters.
The king’s power was limited by the pactista doctrine (except in Castile). In 1561, the court was established in Madrid, and viceroys governed other kingdoms. The king was advised by Councils (composed of lawyers and jurists) and acted as supreme courts. Each council had a Secretary who acted as intermediary between the king and the council. Councils were classified as:
- Council of State: Handled crucial general issues.
- Territorial Councils: Addressed issues in specific regions (Castile, Aragon, Portugal, etc.).
- Technical Councils: Dealt with specific government issues (Treasury, Inquisition).
Parliament was convened sporadically and was largely controlled by the monarch (except in the Crown of Aragon).
5. The Renaissance in Spain
During the 16th century, humanism and Renaissance ideas entered the Hispanic kingdoms from:
- Italy: Influenced art, especially in the Crown of Aragon.
- Flanders: Influenced Castile, particularly through Erasmus of Rotterdam’s followers.
These movements were limited to intellectuals, mainly higher clergy and nobility, resulting in a conservative Spanish Renaissance. Key figures include Antonio de Nebrija (author of the first Castilian grammar) and Cardinal Cisneros (founder of the University of Alcalá de Henares, where the Polyglot Bible was published).
Under Philip II, the Inquisition’s strengthening and the defense of Catholicism led to a decline in humanism, despite the El Escorial monastery becoming an artistic and bibliographic center.