World War II: Causes and Key Events 1939-1945
Hitler’s Rise and the Outbreak of War
Adolf Hitler’s government aimed to acquire a vast empire, providing Germany with “living space” (Lebensraum) in Eastern Europe. Hitler believed that achieving German hegemony in Europe would necessitate war. After securing the neutrality of the Soviet Union with the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Germany initiated World War II by invading Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France responded by declaring war on Germany on September 3.
On April 9, 1940, German forces invaded Norway and Denmark. In May 1940, Germany began its assault on Western Europe. The Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states in June 1940 and annexed them in August 1940. Italy, a member of the Axis powers, entered the war in June 1940. From August 13 until October 31, 1940, the Nazi air force attacked England in the campaign known as the Battle of Britain.
After dominating the Balkans with the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece on April 6, 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, directly violating the German-Soviet Pact. In June and July 1941, the Germans also occupied the Baltic states. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin became a key figure in the Allied forces, alongside U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.
Turning Points and Allied Victory
On December 7, 1941, Japan (one of the Axis powers) bombed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States immediately declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Beginning in 1942, with the arrival of American troops in North Africa, the Allies achieved a series of military victories.
On February 2, 1943, the German 6th Army surrendered to the Soviets at Stalingrad. In September, the Allies invaded Italy, which surrendered on September 8. However, Benito Mussolini established a fascist regime in northern Italy. German forces then invaded northern Italy and moved south to meet the Allied forces. German troops remained in northern Italy until May 1945.
On June 6, 1944 (D-Day), 250,000 Allied troops landed in France, which was liberated by the end of August. Allied air forces attacked Nazi industrial facilities, such as the Auschwitz camp (although the gas chambers were never a target). The Soviets launched an offensive on January 12, 1945, liberating Poland and Hungary. In mid-February 1945, the Allies bombed Dresden, killing nearly 100,000 civilians. On April 29, Hitler committed suicide. Berlin was captured by Soviet forces in May 1945, and the Germans surrendered on May 7, 1945.
In August, the war in the Pacific ended shortly after the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, instantly killing 120,000 civilians. Japan formally surrendered on September 2. World War II resulted in approximately 55 million deaths worldwide.
The Underlying Causes of World War II
There is no single cause of World War II, but rather a combination of political, economic, and social factors. After World War I (1914-1918), peace treaties were signed between nations. Some of these treaties were perceived as unfair, leading to resentment and a desire for revenge. For example, the Treaty of Versailles significantly reduced the territories of Germany and Austria, including areas populated by Germans.
Key Clauses of the Treaty of Versailles
- Germany had to pay substantial compensation to the Allies for economic losses sustained during the war.
- The German army was drastically reduced, and Germany was prohibited from possessing modern weapons of war, such as tanks, aircraft, and submarines.
- The German fleet was limited to ships under 10,000 tons.
Ideological Conflicts and Ethnic Tensions
World War II emerged from a confrontation between opposing ideologies and political-economic systems. Three main ideologies clashed: liberal democracy, Nazi-fascism, and Soviet communism.
Ethnic problems also escalated. The Nazis promoted a sense of superiority of the Germanic race (identified by Hitler as “Aryan”) over other racial groups, particularly Jews, who they believed controlled the capitalist economy and had divided the Germanic peoples, hindering economic development.
The Role of International Diplomacy
The actions of other countries also played a role. France feared a new attack from Germany and sought to avoid it at all costs. However, the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States initially underestimated the danger of German rearmament. The British government adopted a policy of appeasement, believing that making concessions to Hitler would secure his cooperation against the Soviet threat and prevent another war.
Ultimately, World War II can be seen as a direct consequence of the unresolved issues and tensions stemming from World War I.