World War I: Key Phases and Turning Points
The War of Movement (August-November 1914)
When the war began in August 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) enjoyed significant advantages: powerful armies and easy communication. However, the necessity of fighting a two-front war required a quick victory. The German plan called for a swift strike against France, aiming for its capitulation within six weeks, allowing the Central Powers to then focus all their efforts on the Russian front. Initially, these predictions seemed to hold true, but within days, the German advance faced setbacks.
Meanwhile, German armies advanced, invading Belgium and France with little initial opposition. By early September 1914, the Germans were within 40 km of Paris. French armies successfully halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. The outcome of this battle was crucial: the German blitzkrieg strategy had failed. The French managed to stabilize their defensive positions, and the Western Front became immobilized. On the Eastern Front, the German army made significant advances, but Russian forces were also instrumental in launching a counter-attack and invading Austro-Hungarian territory.
Trench Warfare
Also known as positional warfare, this phase was long and arduous. A complex system of trenches was established, including front lines, rear support, hospitals, and communication networks. This sought to create a balance of power between the two sides. Key weaponry included:
- Machine guns: Defended positions and caused high mortality.
- Artillery batteries: Fired shells for days, aiming to destroy and terrorize the enemy.
- Vehicles: Essential for transporting men and materials to the front.
- Close-quarters combat weapons: Important for direct engagements.
The goal was to break the enemy’s line with offensives, but these often failed. For example, at Ypres in 1915, Germany used poison gas for the first time. At Verdun, the French resisted German attempts to break through in what became one of the war’s most brutal battles. During the Somme offensive, an Allied effort, the British deployed a tank for the first time. Later, the Germans constructed the Siegfried Line (also known as the Hindenburg Line), a complex network of fortifications and underground bunkers, which they retreated to in 1917.
Naval and Aerial Warfare
Naval warfare began at the outset of the conflict and primarily developed in European waters. Key players included ships and submarines, which Germany extensively used to attack both warships and merchant vessels, thereby undermining the Allies by cutting off supplies. The most significant event was the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, which killed around 1,200 passengers, including 128 Americans, directly contributing to U.S. entry into the war. Aircraft and airships were used to spy on the enemy, ascertain their positions, and direct their attacks.
The Crisis of 1917
In 1917, a feeling of disappointment and frustration swept across Europe. The war seemed endless, and life at the front became unendurable for the soldiers. Hunger and misery gripped the home fronts, and the initial enthusiasm for the war was rapidly disappearing. These protests led to widespread strikes in Britain, France, and Italy. Furthermore, the outbreak of the Russian Revolution and the rise of the Bolsheviks to power dramatically altered the situation. The new Soviet government requested an armistice and, in March 1918, signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers.
The End of the War
In 1918, the final outcome of the conflict emerged. On the Balkan Front, British, French, and Italian forces defeated the Turks, Bulgarians, and Austrians. The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires requested armistices, and all fighting ceased on the Eastern Fronts. The Czechs announced their intention to form their own state, and Hungary severed all ties with Austria. On November 3rd, the Austro-Hungarian Empire surrendered, and its emperor abdicated.
On the Western Front, the Germans capitalized on the Russian withdrawal to launch a series of offensives. However, the Allies reorganized their armies and secured a decisive victory in the Marne area, forcing the German army’s withdrawal. The German Reich began to collapse. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on November 9th, 1918; a republic was proclaimed, and the new government, led by the German Social Democratic Party, signed the armistice on November 11th. The First World War had officially ended.