World War I: Causes, Phases, Treaty of Versailles, and Aftermath
World War I
Causes
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo. This event triggered a chain reaction of war declarations. Austria and Germany declared war on Serbia. Due to existing alliances, a sequence of war declarations occurred between major European countries.
Two main alliances formed:
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), and Bulgaria.
- Allied Powers: France, Great Britain, Russia, Serbia, and Belgium. Later, the United States, Italy, Greece, Romania, and Portugal joined.
The underlying cause of this World War was the imperialistic ambitions of the great powers.
Phases of the War
- 1914 – The War of Movement (Blitzkrieg): Germany launched a two-front war, attacking France through Belgium in the west and engaging Russia in the east. This strategy failed due to the rapid incorporation of Great Britain.
- 1914-1916 – Trench Warfare (War of Attrition): This phase was characterized by trench warfare and bloody battles like Verdun and the Somme. The front lines remained largely static, with neither side gaining a significant advantage.
- 1917 – A Turning Point: The United States joined the Allied Powers, providing significant human and material resources.
- 1918 – The End of the War: Germany signed a treaty with Russia, as Russia withdrew from the war the previous year due to the Communist Revolution. The Allies launched a major offensive, utilizing tanks and aviation. The war ended on November 11, 1918.
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
The Allies met in Versailles and imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including territorial losses, military restrictions, and occupation of parts of its territory. Germany considered the treaty unfair, fostering resentment and a desire for revenge.
Consequences of World War I
- Approximately 9 million deaths.
- Widespread unemployment and rising prices.
- Countries had to borrow heavily, leading the United States to become the leading world power.
- This situation created a revolutionary climate, economic hardship, and social unrest.
The Russian Revolution
In the early 20th century, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II. In 1905, civil unrest led to a revolt that forced the Tsar to concede some power to a parliament and implement some social reforms. World War I increased the suffering of the population, with increasing famine as millions of peasants were mobilized. The people became increasingly disillusioned.
Soviets (councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers) demanded change. In February 1917, the Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government led by the moderate socialist Kerensky took power. However, Kerensky’s slow pace of reform, particularly regarding land redistribution, and his decision to continue in World War I led to further unrest.
In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, radical socialists, seized power. Lenin formed a new government, signed a peace treaty with Germany, approved the expropriation of large agricultural properties, and gave control of factories to workers. These measures sparked a civil war that lasted until 1921, ending with the victory of the Bolsheviks.
Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)
Alfonso XIII’s reign was marked by the Moroccan War, foreign policy challenges, and domestic political clashes, including the Tragic Week of Barcelona strikes in 1909 and the first general strike in 1917. In September 1923, the political and social crisis worsened, and Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup.
During Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship, the Moroccan problem was addressed, and public order was established. The Spanish economy initially benefited from international prosperity, but the 1929 crash resurfaced economic, social, and political problems. Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930, and King Alfonso XIII left Spain a year later, on April 14, 1931, the date of the proclamation of the Second Republic.