World War I: Causes, Development, and Russian Revolutions
Causes of the Conflict
Hostility between France and Germany stemmed from the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), during which Prussia defeated France and annexed Alsace-Lorraine. Germany, though disadvantaged in colonial partitioning compared to France and Great Britain, led Europe’s industrial and economic development and sought its own colonial empire. Nations formed alliances to protect their interests, with no international forum for dispute resolution. The Second Industrial Revolution fueled an uncontrollable arms race through mass production of new weaponry.
In the Balkans, nationalist movements seeking independence from the Austrian Empire, supported by Russia, created significant tensions.
Weaponry
The Great War was exceptionally devastating, largely due to technological advancements in weaponry. Aviation played a crucial role, with the German company Junkers manufacturing the first metal aeroplane in 1915. Other destructive innovations included tanks, armored vehicles, German Zeppelins, airships, and lethal mustard gas, which caused widespread death and environmental damage.
The Alliances
Two major alliance blocs emerged from the pre-war situation, largely successors to the Bismarckian Alliance System:
- The Triple Alliance: Formed by Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary (1882).
- The Triple Entente: Formed in 1907 by Russia, France, and Great Britain. Italy later abandoned the Triple Alliance due to rivalry with Austria and joined the Triple Entente after the war began.
Development of the War
On June 28th, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo by Serbian separatist Gavrilo Princip. Austria threatened to annex Serbia, prompting Russia to defend Serbia. This triggered a chain reaction among the alliances: Germany attacked France through Belgium, and Great Britain declared its support for France and Belgian neutrality.
First Phase (1914): War of Movement
Germany initiated a rapid offensive against France. Simultaneously, German and Austrian forces defeated Russia on the Eastern Front.
Second Phase (1915-1916): Trench Warfare
By September 1914, French troops halted the German advance at the Marne River, near Paris. This marked the beginning of trench warfare, or war of position, where neither side could advance. The war reached a stalemate, resulting in immense casualties for both the Franco-British and German forces. Soldiers dug extensive trench systems for protection, creating a death trap stretching from the North Sea to Switzerland. Extreme conditions, including rain, cold, mud, rats, lice, and illness, compounded human suffering. Attempts to break through enemy lines led to bloody battles.
Third Phase (1917-1918): Critical Year and Conclusion
1917 proved to be a critical year. Following the revolution in Russia, the country made peace with Germany, effectively surrendering. However, the United States’ intervention bolstered the Entente’s strength. In 1918, near the war’s end, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points peace plan. After the Central Powers’ defeat, an armistice was signed, ending hostilities.
Consequences of the War
The war resulted in enormous human losses, with approximately ten million soldiers killed, countless wounded or maimed, and numerous civilian casualties. The Austro-Hungarian, German, British, and Russian empires, along with France, were most affected. Economic losses varied, with France and Belgium suffering the most. Germany faced significant economic hardship due to war reparations demanded by other nations, hindering its recovery and contributing to the 1929 crisis.
Politically, the map of Europe was radically altered. The Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated, leaving present-day Austria and creating new nations like Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The German Empire ended, its territory reduced, and Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. The Ottoman Empire vanished, losing territories in the Middle East. Europe’s global hegemony waned, with the United States emerging as a new world power.
Women entered the workforce to replace men in factories during the war, leading to increased female participation in the working world and, subsequently, the granting of voting rights in many countries.
Peace: The Treaty of Versailles
Peace was formalized through five treaties signed separately with the defeated powers, collectively known as the Paris Peace Treaties (1919-1920). The principle of collective security led to the creation of the League of Nations, the first international organization dedicated to maintaining peace and the precursor to the United Nations.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed harsh economic, military, and territorial terms on Germany, including the loss of European territories and colonies. These conditions were perceived as a national humiliation, fostering resentment that contributed to the rise of Nazism and ultimately, World War II.
- Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. Germany also ceded territories to Denmark, Poland, and Lithuania.
- Germany was required to pay substantial reparations for war damages. For instance, the Saarland’s coal production was to be shipped to France.
- A demilitarized zone, the Rhineland, was established along the French border. The German army was limited to 100,000 men, with restrictions on its navy and air force.
- Germany lost its overseas colonies, which were distributed as mandates among Great Britain, France, and Japan.
The Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917
Czarist Russia
At the dawn of the 20th century, the Russian Empire spanned one-sixth of the Earth’s surface, from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic to the Black Sea. With approximately 150 million inhabitants in 1917, the population was diverse and unevenly distributed. The economy, primarily agricultural, was beginning a slow industrial development.
Russia was governed by an autocratic monarchy where the Czar, believed to rule by divine right, held absolute power, supported by a feudal aristocracy, the Orthodox Church, and a corrupt bureaucracy. Political opposition to Czarism grew, influenced by liberal European traditions and the Marxist-inspired Russian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (RSDWP), founded in the late 19th century. The RSDWP advocated for a working-class revolution to end injustice and inequality.
In 1903, the RSDWP split into two factions:
- Bolsheviks: Advocated for a revolution led by a dedicated working-class minority, with the motto ‘Peace, bread, and land.’ Their leader was Lenin.
- Mensheviks: A more moderate group favoring an alliance with liberal reformers.
The Revolution of 1905
In 1905, forces opposing Czarism attempted to seize power through revolution, fueled by a severe economic, political, and social crisis, widespread strikes, and Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which exposed the Czarist regime’s weakness. The revolution was ignited by the brutal suppression of a peaceful demonstration petitioning the Czar for better conditions, an event known as Bloody Sunday, which shattered the people’s trust in the Czar.
Popular protests, worker strikes, peasant revolts, and military uprisings created a prerevolutionary situation. Political strikes became a primary tactic, and the first soviet, comprising workers, peasants, and soldiers, was formed in St. Petersburg (Petrograd) to coordinate these actions. Although the revolutionaries failed to seize power in 1905, they compelled the Czar to implement reforms:
- Creation of the Duma: A National Legislative Assembly, theoretically a parliament but controlled by the Czar.
- Agrarian Reform: Initiated to distribute land, aiming to build a social base for the liberal regime. This project was halted by the assassination of its proponent, Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin, in 1911.
- Limited Liberties: Establishment of individual and citizen liberties.
In the summer of 1914, World War I began. Following initial defeats, Czar Nicholas II assumed direct command of the army in 1915 but could not prevent the front’s collapse or the breakdown of civil authority. The Czarina, influenced by Grigori Rasputin, openly manipulated the government. The war led to widespread demoralization among the army and populace, creating conditions for a new revolutionary upheaval.
The Revolution of February 1917
The imposition of ration cards amidst war, hunger, and demoralization served as the catalyst for this revolution. The Czar was forced to abdicate, marking the triumph of the revolution.
Two centers of power emerged: the liberal Duma and the revolutionary Soviet. Both sought to guide the revolution and agreed to form a Provisional Government tasked with establishing democratic freedoms, convening a constituent assembly, and granting political amnesty.
The Revolution of October 1917
Lenin deemed the time ripe for an armed uprising. From the Smolny Institute, the seat of the Petrograd Soviet, the Bolsheviks orchestrated the revolution. On the night of October 24th-25th (Russian calendar), revolutionary troops seized key city points, captured the Winter Palace, and dissolved the government. The following day, warning shots from the cruiser Aurora signaled the revolution’s success and the dawn of a global Communist revolution.
On October 26th, a revolutionary government was established, led by Lenin and including representatives from all participating political factions. The new Soviet state immediately issued decrees:
- Decree on Peace: Outlined Russia’s withdrawal from the war without territorial concessions.
- Decree on Land: The state confiscated property from the Crown, the Orthodox Church, and landowners, distributing it to local soviets and agrarian committees for peasant allocation.
The Russian Civil War (1918-1920)
Following the October Revolution, Bolshevik control was consolidated in major cities and industrial areas, while outlying regions remained under the influence of counterrevolutionaries. Internal tensions escalated into a civil war between two main factions:
- The White Army: Comprised of counterrevolutionaries supported by foreign powers seeking to prevent the spread of communism and gain control of Russian resources.
- The Red Army: Led by Trotsky, consisting of Bolsheviks whose discipline and courage were instrumental in their victory.
Politically, the war solidified the Bolshevik regime and strengthened the single-party system, leading to the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. The Bolsheviks suppressed other revolutionary groups, leading to uprisings and an assassination attempt on Lenin. The secret police, the Cheka, ruthlessly eliminated dissidents.
Lenin died in January 1924 without a designated successor. While the Communist Party was expected to remain the central political authority, with leadership falling to a collective body including Trotsky and Stalin, Stalin ultimately prevailed over his rivals. Trotsky was expelled from the Soviet Union in 1929, exiled to Mexico where he founded the Fourth International, and was assassinated in 1940 by a Stalinist agent.