World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Peace Treaties
Causes of World War I
Conflicts Between the Powers Before the War
- Between England and Russia: Russian attempts to expand into the Mediterranean and colonial rivalry in Asia.
- Between England and France: Colonial rivalry in Africa.
- Between France and Germany: The question of Alsace and Lorraine, and colonial rivalry in Africa.
- Between England and Germany: Commercial rivalry and a naval arms race.
- Between Austria-Hungary and Serbia: The question of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbian nationalism.
- Between Austria-Hungary and Russia: Competition for dominance in the Balkans.
- Between Germany and Russia: German support for Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
Nationalism
After the Congress of Vienna, many people who desired autonomy were made subject to local dynasties or other nations. The states belonging to the Germanic Confederation were divided into numerous duchies and kingdoms. Italy was also divided into several political units. Flemish Belgians and the French of the Austrian Netherlands were dominated by the Netherlands. Nationalist movements were able to overturn most of the dictates of the Congress, and Belgium became independent from the Netherlands. Italy was unified in 1861 and Germany in 1871.
Imperialism
The nationalist spirit was also evident in the economic field. The Industrial Revolution increased manufactured products, forcing countries to seek new markets abroad. The economic rivalry for dominance of African territory between France, Germany, and Britain nearly provoked a war.
Europe’s Military Expansion
As a result of these tensions, European nations took steps that increased the danger of conflict. They had numerous armies that were constantly expanded in peacetime and built larger warships. Attempts to promote global disarmament, especially in the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, failed. International rivalry reached a point where no agreement on disarmament could be reached. Partnerships were established between powers. If a conflict broke out, the “Triple Alliance” formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, and the Triple Entente, formed by Britain, France, and Russia, would be activated.
Prewar Crisis
With Europe divided into two sets of alliances, any alteration of the political or military situation would cause an international incident. From 1905 to 1914, several international crises and two local wars took place.
Consequences of World War I
Casualties
An estimated 10 million people died, and 20 million were wounded. Some of these figures were civilians, due to hunger and disease.
Material and Economic Losses
In addition to the destruction caused by the war, the economies of these countries were heavily indebted, to the point of “bankruptcy”. They were placed under U.S. economic influence.
Political Implications
Traditional empires disappeared. A new map emerged, as empires disintegrated into new states.
Social Consequences
War needs led to women increasing their participation in the workplace. Political parties and labor unions emerged stronger, channeling social discontent caused by the hardships of war.
Treaties of Peace
After the war, the victorious countries met near Paris to negotiate peace treaties. There were divergent positions in the negotiations:
- France called for ending the German threat and wanted to bring its border to the Rhine. It also wanted the full demilitarization of Germany.
- Great Britain favored maintaining some balance.
- The U.S. wanted to apply the “14 Points” that President Wilson had proposed to ensure the absence of war in Europe.
- Italy aspired to achieve substantial territorial compensation.
The Treaties of Paris are five:
- Treaty of Versailles: Signed by Germany, which was convicted of war. It lost its colonies and territory, which was handed over to Poland and Czechoslovakia. It also had to pay heavy war reparations. These conditions were regarded by Germany as a humiliation.
- Treaty of Saint-Germain: Signed with Austria. It established separation from Hungary and the cession of territory to the future Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Austria was reduced to a very small country.
- Treaty of Trianon: Signed with Hungary, which lost two-thirds of its territory.
- Treaty of Sèvres: Signed with Turkey, which reduced the Ottoman Empire to its Asian territories.
- Treaty of Neuilly: Signed with Bulgaria, which lost its Aegean Sea front in favor of Greece and ceded territories to Romania and Yugoslavia.
At the suggestion of Wilson, the League of Nations was formed. However, the U.S. Senate’s refusal to join, along with the exclusion of Germany and the USSR, weakened the effectiveness of the League of Nations.