World War I: Causes, Consequences, and Artistic Responses
Phases of the War
Initial German Offensives 1914: The German Empire made several rapid offensives, invading Belgium, which was neutral, as well as the north of France. At the same time, German forces were fighting to prevent Russian advances in the east.
Trench Warfare and New Allies 1915-1917: In 1915, the Western Front between Germany and the Allies stabilized and a period of trench warfare began. In 1917, the USA entered the war in support of the Allies, but the Russian Empire began to collapse as a result of the Russian Revolution.
Allied Victories and the Armistice 1918: Russia withdrew from the war, but the Allies achieved a number of victories both in the east and the west. After a political revolution took place in Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918.
Consequences of the First World War
Serious consequences for Europe:
- Death and Injury: The war produced millions of casualties. Population decreased, impacting the workforce after the war.
- Material Destruction: Cities, factories, and infrastructure were destroyed. Europe suffered great damage.
- Economic Decline: Europe lost its economic leadership and needed help (loans) from the USA. The USA became the world’s leading economic power.
- New European States: The European map changed. The Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires ceased to exist. New states were created, including Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Finland.
- Colonial Changes: The Allies took control over African colonies. Britain gained control of the Middle East and Iraq, while France took control of Syria and Lebanon.
The Revolutions of February and October 1917
Nicholas II abdicated. Mensheviks formed a provisional government, establishing a republic. Bolsheviks opposed this and established a Soviet government.
Another revolution occurred in October 1917, and Lenin became the leader. He signed a treaty with the German Empire in exchange for a large amount of land and withdrew from the war.
Bolsheviks began persecuting their opponents. They killed the Tsar family. A civil war broke out between the White Russians (counter-revolutionaries) and the Red Army (Bolsheviks).
Lenin won and established the USSR, approving a communist constitution based on Karl Marx’s ideas. The government controlled the proletariat, production, and the economy.
Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism
In the 1920s and 1930s, authoritarian dictatorships came to power in many countries. In some cases, these evolved into totalitarian regimes.
- Left-wing authoritarian regimes came to power in the USSR as a result of the Russian Revolution. The communist state was anti-capitalist and aimed to establish a classless society.
- Right-wing authoritarian regimes came to power in Italy and Germany. These regimes were extremely pro-nationalist and opposed both communism and democracy. They shared some common features:
- Politics: Power was concentrated in a supreme leader and a single political party. Propaganda was used to glorify the leader, and other political parties were prohibited.
- Economy: The state controlled the economy. Public works were implemented to reduce unemployment, and trade unions were prohibited.
- Society: Rights and freedoms were limited. Repressive measures were taken against those who opposed the regime.
- Foreign Policy: Expansionism was pursued to gain new territories and raw materials.
Stalinism
After Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin became the leader of the USSR. A totalitarian regime developed.
Stalin controlled all branches of government. The army was used to suppress opposition.
The economy was planned and controlled by the state. Stalin introduced five-year plans aimed at industrialization and economic development. Private property was prohibited, industries were nationalized, and agriculture was taken from private owners to establish state-controlled collective farms.
Despite the goal of a classless society, people died of starvation in the 1930s.
Women’s rights were restricted, limiting them to staying at home, getting married, and having children.
Artistic Style | Characteristics | Techniques |
Cubism | – Appeared in France – Not reality, represented ideas and concepts – Important painters like Picasso (Señoritas de Avignon) and Braque (The Candelabra) – Archipenko (Woman Walking) sculpture | – Shapes and objects – Geometric shapes – Facets such as collage |
Expressionism | – Germany – Represented emotions (war) – Munch (The Scream) painting – Lehmbrucks (The Fallen) sculpture | – Simple and dramatic faces – Emotions expressed by deformed parts of the body – Silhouettes or outlines (simplifying) Lady in a Green Jacket by August Macke |
Dadaism | – European artistic movement – Painting and photographic – Inspired from the war – Represented dramatism and rebelling | – Use of photomontage. Hannah Höch (Bunch of Eyes) |
| Objectivity | 1920s Germany. Wanted to represent the harsh or crude reality of the war. Otto Dix (Trench Warfare) | Imagination and criticize political, social, and economic problems |
| Surrealism | Between 1925 and 1940 in Europe and the USA. The two Spanish painters Dalí (The Persistence of Memory) and Joan Miró (Harlequin’s Carnival) are the two most representative painters. | Imagination of scenes, dreams, and fantasy |
Phases of the War
Initial German Offensives 1914: The German Empire made several rapid offensives, invading Belgium, which was neutral, as well as the north of France. At the same time, German forces were fighting to prevent Russian advances in the east.
Trench Warfare and New Allies 1915-1917: In 1915, the Western Front between Germany and the Allies stabilized and a period of trench warfare began. In 1917, the USA entered the war in support of the Allies, but the Russian Empire began to collapse as a result of the Russian Revolution.
Allied Victories and the Armistice 1918: Russia withdrew from the war, but the Allies achieved a number of victories both in the east and the west. After a political revolution took place in Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918.
Consequences of the First World War
Serious consequences for Europe:
Death and injury – The war produced millions of casualties. Population decreased, impacting the workforce after the war.
Material destruction – Cities, factories, and infrastructure were destroyed. Europe suffered great damage.
Economic decline – Europe lost its economic leadership and needed help (loans) from the USA. The USA became the world’s leading economic power.
New European states – The European map changed. The Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires ceased to exist. New states were created, including Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Finland.
Colonial changes – The Allies took control over African colonies. Britain gained control of the Middle East and Iraq, while France took control of Syria and Lebanon.