World War I: Alliances, Imperialism, and the Outbreak of War
Alliances
An alliance is an agreement between two or more countries to provide mutual assistance if needed. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known as Allies. Several alliances were signed between 1879 and 1914. These were crucial because they obligated some countries to declare war if one of their allies did. To maintain a balance of power in Europe, the major countries formed two main alliances:
- The Triple Alliance (also called the Central Powers): In 1882, Germany, Austria, and Italy formed an alliance. The Ottoman Empire joined in 1914. Italy switched sides in 1915.
- The Triple Entente: By 1907, France, Russia, and Britain had formed an alliance. In 1917, Russia withdrew from the Entente and the war, but the USA joined around the same time.
Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country seizes control of new lands or countries and subjects them to its rule. By 1900, the British Empire spanned five continents, and France controlled vast areas of Africa. The extensive territories ‘owned’ by Britain and France fueled rivalry with Germany, which had entered the scramble for colonies late and possessed only small areas of Africa.
Militarism
Militarism means the government prioritizes and glorifies the army and military forces. The growing European divide led to an arms race between the major powers. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914, and there was intense competition between Britain and Germany for naval dominance. The British introduced the ‘Dreadnought,’ a powerful new battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit, introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen, also devised a plan to attack France through Belgium if Russia attacked Germany.
Nationalism
Nationalism means being a strong advocate for the rights and interests of one’s country. The Congress of Vienna, held after the Napoleonic Wars, left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Nationalism fueled the reunification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. France was resentful because the settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian War had given Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to diverse nationalist groups, all seeking independence from their respective states.
Crises
The Moroccan Crisis
In 1904, Britain granted Morocco to France, but the Moroccans desired independence and were supported by Germany. War was averted, but in 1911, the Germans again protested against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France, and Germany was persuaded to back down in exchange for part of French Congo.
The Bosnian Crisis
In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia. This angered Serbians who believed the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war, and Russia, allied with Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, also mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. In 1911 and 1912, war erupted in the Balkans when the Balkan states expelled Turkey from the region. The states then fought amongst themselves over territorial claims. Austria-Hungary intervened and forced Serbia to cede land. Tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary remained high.
The Outbreak of War: Franz Ferdinand Assassination
Tension suddenly erupted into the First World War, starting in the Balkans. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, visited Bosnia to strengthen Bosnian loyalty to Austria-Hungary. He was assassinated by a Serb student in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.
Events rapidly escalated towards war:
- July 23: Austria-Hungary blamed the Serbian government for the assassination, demanding compensation and the right to deploy troops into Serbia.
- July 28: Serbia refused entry to these troops. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
- July 29: Russia began mobilizing troops to aid Serbia.
- July 30: Germany demanded that Russia cease mobilization.
- August 1: Russia refused. Germany declared war on Russia.
- August 2: France began mobilizing to support Russia.
- August 3: Germany declared war on France.
- August 4: Germany sent troops through Belgium to attack France, following the Schlieffen Plan. Belgium was neutral, and Britain had pledged to protect Belgium. Britain ordered Germany to withdraw. Germany refused. Britain declared war on Germany.
- August 6: Austria declared war on Russia.
Theaters of War
Although World War One was a global conflict, most of the fighting was concentrated in a few key areas, known as theaters of war:
The Western Front
The German army crossed the Belgian border on August 3, 1914. Britain and France declared war on Germany on August 4. The Germans advanced through Belgium and into France. The British and French armies marched to halt the German advance. The Battle of Marne (September 4-10) prevented the Germans from reaching Paris. To avoid losing the territory already gained in France, the Germans began digging trenches. The British and French, unable to break through the German trench lines, began digging their own trenches. Throughout the war, neither side gained more than a few miles of ground along what became known as the Western Front.
Major battles on the Western Front include: Marne (September 1914), First Battle of Ypres (October-November 1914), Verdun (February-December 1916), Somme (July-November 1916), Passchendaele (July-November 1917), Cambrai (November 1917), and Marne (July 1918).
The Eastern Front
The Eastern Front was the line of fighting on the eastern side of Europe between Russia and Germany and Austria-Hungary. Fighting began on the Eastern Front when Russia invaded East Prussia on August 17, 1914. Germany immediately launched a counter-offensive and pushed Russia back. This pattern of attack and counter-attack continued for the first two years of the war, resulting in shifting territorial control. By 1917, the Russian people were weary of the immense number of Russian casualties.