World History: From Russian Revolution to World War II

Posted on Aug 7, 2024 in History

The Russian Revolution (1917)

A consequence of World War I, the Russian Revolution caused the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Causes of the Revolution:

Economic:

  • Medieval economic system with poor and starving peasants.
  • Slow industrial growth with mistreated workers.
  • World War I exacerbated poverty and starvation.

Social:

  • Domination by the Tsar, an absolute monarch backed by a small aristocracy.
  • 1905 uprising forced the Tsar to share power with the Duma, revealing cracks in the system.

Political:

  • Lack of representation for common people in the Tsarist government.
  • By 1917, widespread desire to leave World War I, ignored by the Tsar.

Key Events:

  • February Revolution: Tsar overthrown, replaced by a republic. The Tsar was executed a year later.
  • October Revolution: Led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks (Marxists), with support from Germany.
  • Civil War: Bolsheviks (Reds) fought against the Mensheviks (Whites). Trotsky’s Red Army emerged victorious.
  • 1920: The first communist state, the USSR, was founded with the Bolsheviks as the sole legal party.

Principles of the Communist System:

  • Opposition to capitalism and the exploitation of the proletariat.
  • Production controlled by soviets (workers’ councils).
  • Profits distributed by the state.
  • Desire to spread communism worldwide.

Russia exited World War I in 1918 with a peace treaty with Germany.

Communism in China

China, weakened by war with Japan and Russia, underwent significant changes in the early 20th century.

Timeline:

  • 1912: Emperor Pu Yi abdicated, leading to the establishment of a republic led by the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party).
  • 1921: Mao Zedong founded the Chinese Communist Party.
  • 1927-1949: Civil war erupted between the Kuomintang (led by Chiang Kai-shek) and the Communists. The Kuomintang received support from the USA and UK.
  • Long March (1934-1935): Mao Zedong and the Communists undertook a strategic retreat to evade the larger Kuomintang army.
  • Post-World War II: The Communists expelled the Kuomintang from mainland China.

The Roaring Twenties and the Great Depression

The Roaring Twenties:

A period of optimism and economic prosperity, particularly in the United States, fueled by:

  • Hope for lasting peace after World War I.
  • New technologies boosting domestic markets.
  • Industrial development driving consumer demand.
  • Perceived successes of the League of Nations.
  • Loans to Europe boosting the US economy.
  • A cultural boom and the construction of skyscrapers, symbolizing the rise of the USA.

The Great Depression (1929-1939):

The Roaring Twenties ended abruptly with the stock market crash of 1929, leading to a global economic depression.

Causes:

  • Overproduction in industries.
  • Reduced European demand for American products.
  • Excessive borrowing and investment in the stock market.
  • European debt and struggles to pay war reparations.
  • Inflation.

Consequences:

  • Economic: Recession, business closures, and mass unemployment.
  • Social: Population decline, emigration, and the rise of extremist ideologies.
  • Political: Instability and the emergence of extremist groups like fascists and Nazis.

Global Impacts of the Depression

  • Germany: The Weimar Republic collapsed (1929-1933), paving the way for the rise of the Nazi Party. The Nazis promised economic recovery, rearmament, and the violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
  • Japan: Severely affected by the depression, Japan sought to expand its empire. It invaded Manchuria in 1932, leading to its withdrawal from the League of Nations.
  • Italy: Under Mussolini, Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy, aiming to restore the Roman Empire. It invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, facing ineffective sanctions from the League of Nations.
  • Britain: Despite being a democracy, Britain faced high unemployment. The British Union of Fascists (Blackshirts) gained traction in some areas.
  • France: Hit later by the depression, France faced export problems and focused on strengthening its defenses against a resurgent Germany. Internal divisions and extremist movements added to the instability.
  • Spain: Political and economic turmoil led to the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The Republican government was overthrown by a nationalist faction led by General Francisco Franco, who established a dictatorship.
  • USA: The Republican government lost power in 1932 due to the depression. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal policies aimed to stimulate the economy and provide relief to citizens.
  • Soviet Union: Under Joseph Stalin’s brutal dictatorship, the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization, emerging as a major world power by the late 1930s.

The Rise of Fascism

The economic crisis, coupled with the perceived weaknesses of democratic governments, created fertile ground for the rise of fascism and communism.

Reasons for the Appeal of Fascism:

  • Fear of communism.
  • Economic hardship and instability.
  • Nationalism and the promise of restoring national pride.
  • Scapegoating of minority groups.

Countdown to World War II

Adolf Hitler’s Rise to Power:

  • 1933: Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and leader of the Nazi Party.
  • 1935: Germany regained control of the Saar region and held a public rearmament rally, violating the Treaty of Versailles.
  • 1936: Hitler banned all other political parties, imprisoned opponents, controlled the media, and began persecuting Jews.
  • March 1936: Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, justifying it as a defensive measure against a perceived threat from France and Russia.
  • November 1936: Germany, Japan, and Italy signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, targeting the Soviet Union.
  • April 1937: German and Italian aircraft, supporting Francisco Franco’s nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, bombed the Basque town of Guernica, a horrific example of civilian targeting.
  • March 1938: Germany annexed Austria in the”Anschluss” claiming that the two German-speaking nations belonged together. Hitler proclaimed the creation of the”Greater German Reich”
  • September 1938: Hitler demanded the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia. The Munich Agreement, signed by Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, ceded the Sudetenland to Germany in exchange for Hitler’s promise of no further territorial demands. This act of appeasement failed to prevent war.
  • March 1939: Germany broke its promise and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia.
  • August 1939: The Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed, a non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union. The pact included a secret protocol to divide Poland between the two powers.
  • September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II.
  • September 3, 1939: Britain and France declared war on Germany.

World War II (1939-1945)

Causal Factors:

  • Economic instability and the Great Depression.
  • The rise of aggressive ideologies like fascism and Nazism.
  • Nationalism and imperialism.
  • The failure of appeasement.
  • The weakness of the League of Nations.

Characteristics:

  • The deadliest conflict in human history, with an estimated 40-85 million fatalities.
  • A global war fought on multiple continents and oceans.
  • Technological advancements, including tanks, aircraft, and the atomic bomb, had a profound impact on warfare.
  • Civilian populations were heavily affected by bombing raids, occupation, and atrocities like the Holocaust.
  • Espionage and intelligence gathering played crucial roles.

Consequences:

  • The defeat of the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan).
  • The emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers, leading to the Cold War.
  • The formation of the United Nations.
  • The beginning of the atomic age.
  • The Holocaust, the genocide of six million Jews by the Nazi regime, led to international efforts to prevent future genocides.
  • The Nuremberg Trials, where Nazi leaders were held accountable for war crimes and crimes against humanity, established principles of international law.

Major Players in World War II

Axis Powers:

  • Germany
  • Italy
  • Japan

Allied Powers:

  • Great Britain and the Commonwealth
  • United States (joined in 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor)
  • Soviet Union (joined in 1941 after Germany broke the Nazi-Soviet Pact)
  • China
  • France (after liberation)

Neutral Countries:

  • Switzerland
  • Spain (though Franco’s regime had sympathies for the Axis)

Adolf Hitler and Nazi Ideology

Key Symbols and Concepts:

  • Swastika: An ancient symbol appropriated by the Nazis, representing their ideology of racial purity and Aryan supremacy.
  • Mein Kampf “My Struggl”): Hitler’s autobiographical manifesto outlining his racist and anti-Semitic views, as well as his plans for German expansion.
  • Aryan Supremacy: The belief that people of Germanic origin were a”master rac” superior to all others.
  • Anti-Semitism: Deep-seated hatred and prejudice against Jews, whom the Nazis blamed for Germany’s problems.
  • Final Solution: The Nazi plan to exterminate the Jews of Europe, resulting in the Holocaust.
  • Holocaust: The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.
  • Nuremberg Trials: Post-war trials held in Nuremberg, Germany, to hold Nazi leaders accountable for war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity. The trials established important precedents for international law and justice.

Key Events of World War II

1939:

  • September: Germany invades Poland, triggering declarations of war from Britain and France.

1940:

  • April: Germany conquers Denmark and Norway.
  • May: Germany invades Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and France.
  • June: France falls to Germany, leading to occupation.
  • August: The Battle of Britain begins, with Germany launching air raids on Britain. The Royal Air Force successfully defends Britain.

1941:

  • June: Germany breaks the Nazi-Soviet Pact and invades the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.
  • December: Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing the United States into the war. Japan also begins its conquest of Southeast Asia.

1942:

  • June: The United States wins a decisive naval victory against Japan at the Battle of Midway, a turning point in the Pacific War.
  • August: Japan conquers Hong Kong, Singapore, the Philippines, Malaya, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies.
  • October: Allied forces defeat the Axis powers at the Battle of El Alamein in North Africa, a turning point in the North African campaign.

1943:

  • January: The Casablanca Conference is held, with President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill agreeing to demand unconditional surrender from the Axis powers.
  • February: The Battle of Stalingrad, a brutal six-month battle, ends in a decisive Soviet victory, marking a turning point on the Eastern Front.
  • September: Italy surrenders to the Allies after the overthrow of Mussolini.

1944:

  • June: D-Day: Allied forces land on the beaches of Normandy, France, beginning the liberation of Western Europe.
  • August: Paris is liberated from German occupation.

1945:

  • February: The Yalta Conference is held between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to discuss the postwar order.
  • May: Soviet forces capture Berlin; Germany surrenders unconditionally; Hitler commits suicide.
  • July: The Potsdam Conference takes place, with Truman, Stalin, and Churchill (later replaced by Clement Attlee) meeting to negotiate the postwar order.
  • August: The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Japan surrenders unconditionally, ending World War II.