Word Classes in English Grammar: A Comprehensive Guide
Word Classes
According to traditional grammarians, words are classified into parts of speech based on their forms. Modern grammar, however, studies words in relation to both their forms and functions. In this approach, words are classified into two broad groups: Major word classes and Minor word classes.
Major Word Class
The Major word class is expandable, meaning new words can be added to it. It is also called an open word class. When new inventions and discoveries are made in any branch of human knowledge, new words are coined and added to the list of open word classes. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs belong to the open word class.
Minor Word Class
New words cannot be added to the closed or Minor word class. The number of words in this system is fixed. Thus, the Minor word system is closed. Nothing can be added to it. Pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections belong to this system.
Nouns
Meaning: The names of a person, place, thing, or animal are called nouns.
Example: Ram, Pune, Ball, Cat
Types of Nouns
- Proper Noun: It is the name of a particular person or place. Ex: Rohit, Latur
- Common Noun: These are words for types of things, people, and places, such as dog, professor, and city.
- Collective Noun: It is the name of a collection of things. Ex: Police, Family, Army
- Material Noun: It refers to matter. Nouns related to solids, liquids, and gases are called material nouns. New things are made from them. Ex: gold, oil, wood
- Abstract Noun: The name of an action, quality, or state. Ex: Laughter, Death, Goodness, Wisdom
Pronouns
Meaning: The words used in place of nouns are called pronouns. They are substitutes for nouns and are used to avoid repetition.
Ex: Laxman gave his phone to his wife; she is happy for it.
Types of Pronouns
- Personal Pronouns: They refer to a specific person, place, object, or thing. They are either singular or plural and are also gender and number-specific.
Singular Plural First Person I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours Second Person You, you, your, yours You, you, your, yours Third Person He, she, it, him, her, its They, them, their, theirs - Possessive Pronouns: They show ownership or possession. The possessive pronouns in English are mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs.
- Reflexive Pronouns: They add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun near the beginning of the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
- Demonstrative Pronouns: They direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only four demonstrative pronouns in English: This, That, These, Those. This and These are used for objects that are close.
- Relative Pronouns: They show the relationship of a noun with another part of the phrase. They begin a subordinate, relative clause. Ex: That, which, who, whom, where
The car that was painted yesterday is mine. - Interrogative Pronouns: They ask questions. Ex: What, which, who, whom
Adjectives
Meaning: A word describing a noun is called an adjective. It is a word used to express the quality, quantity, or number in a sentence.
Types of Adjectives
- Adjective of Quality: It is used to express the quality of a person or thing. Ex: Honest, tall, beautiful, good, bad
- Adjective of Quantity: It states the quantity of nouns. Ex: some, little, enough
- Adjective of Possession: They show ownership or possession. Ex: my, our, his, her, their
- Adjective of Number: They show the number of persons, places, or things. They are divided into two types: cardinal and ordinal numbers.
Ex:- Cardinal: one, two, three, four
- Ordinal: first, second, third, fourth, next, last
- Interrogative Adjective: Adjectives that are used to ask questions. Ex: What, whose, which
- Demonstrative Adjective: Words used to demonstrate a person or thing about whom we are saying special things become adjectives when they occur before the noun and modify it. Ex: this, that, these, those
- Distributive Adjectives: Words used to refer to each and every person or thing. Ex: each, every, either, neither, any, both
Verbs
Meaning: They are action words; the verb carries an idea in the sentence. There cannot be a sentence without a verb.
Types of Verbs
- Regular and Irregular Verbs
- Regular Verb: A verb that takes -ed in the past tense. Ex: play-played, jump-jumped, work-worked
- Irregular Verb: Verbs that form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present tense form. Ex: run-ran-run, sink-sank-sunk
- Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
Limited by the person and number of the subject of the sentence and express tense. The tense of the sentence is understood by looking at the finite verbs. Ex: Vishal tries to tell the truth.
- Linking Verbs and Phrasal Verbs
They join the subject and compliment in a sentence. A linking verb connects the subject with a word that gives information about the subject, such as a condition or relationship. They do not show any action. Ex:
- Sindhu remains silent in the class.
- Humans grow old with time.
Phrasal verbs are used with prepositions or adverbs. Ex:
- I got up early.
- He brought up the child.
- The hunter shot at the tiger.
- Auxiliary Verbs: Used along with a main verb to express tense, mood, or voice. Also called helping verbs. Ex: It is raining.
Email Writing
Email is the most common and fastest form of written communication. It is used to share computer files. The five steps of email writing are:
- Begin with a greeting
- Thank the recipient
- State your purpose
- Add your closing remarks
- End with a closing
Begin with a Greeting
The opening line of an email should be a greeting such as Dear Asmi, Dear Mrs. Kulkarni, Respected Mr. Jadhav, or Dear Sir/Madam.
Thank the Recipient
While replying to a person, one should thank him/her. One can write”Thank you for supporting me” or”Thank you for your prompt reply” or”Thanks for getting back to me”
State Your Purpose
The email writing is begun by stating the purpose, like”I am writing to enquire about..” or”I am writing in reference to..”
Add Closing Remarks
At the end of the email, one should put closing remarks. You can write”Thank you for your consideration” or”Thank you for your patience and cooperation” or”I look forward to hearing from you”
End with a Closing
End the email with an appropriate closing remark with your name. Examples: Best regards, Regards, Best wishes, Sincerely yours.
Curriculum Vitae (CV)
A CV reflects the educational history, work experience, hobbies, and interests of an applicant. Here are six guidelines for the preparation of a CV:
Personal Details
The maker of a CV should write his/her name, address, phone number, email address, marital status, nationality, date of birth, and place of birth.
Educational Qualifications
State the name of the educational institutions and the diplomas/degrees you have obtained.
Work Experience
State the name of the companies/firms for which you have worked, the location, the job title, and a short job description.
Knowledge of Languages
Write the languages that you know.
Computer Skills
Write the names of computer programs that you have studied.
Hobbies and Interests
State your hobbies and interests here and make it personal.
I Have Three Visions for India
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam
The essay”I Have Three Visions for Indi” is written by Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, the Bharat Ratna Awardee and the eleventh president of India. He was also known as the Missile Man and the People’s President. Born on 15 October 1931, in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, he died on 27 July 2015, in Shillong, Meghalaya. Dr. Kalam began his career as a scientist in the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Later, he joined the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as Project Director of the Satellite Launch Vehicle in 1998. Dr. Kalam put forth a countrywide vision of 2020.
This scholarly speech by Dr. Kalam tries to convince the citizens of India about an urgent need:”Let’s do what India needs from us” He takes a famous quote by American President J.F. Kennedy to suit the Indian context and urges us to ask ourselves what we have done or are going to do to make our country a strong nation that is respected and revered by the world. He makes us understand that we should not merely talk about the shortcomings of our nation and ask what it has done for us. Rather, we should count on the strengths of our nation and strive hard to achieve excellence in every field, which would ultimately result in making this nation great.
Dr. Kalam opens his speech by recounting how, during the last 3000 years, various invaders have robbed India of its glory. However, India has not done any harm to any nation or people because Indians respect the freedom of others. Thus, Dr. Kalam puts forward the three visions he holds for India to become a leading country in the world: freedom, development, and standing up to the world.
Dr. Kalam makes it clear that these three visions are integrated with each other. Without freedom, there would be no development, and without strength shown to the world, it would not respect our freedom. So, according to Dr. Kalam, we must be strong not only as a military power but also as an economic power. Both must go hand-in-hand.
Dr. Kalam rebukes the Indian media and Indian mentality for their negative attitude towards the strengths of our nation. He recounts how India is a great nation by showing that India has excelled in milk production, in remote sensing satellites, and as a producer of wheat and rice. He urges Indians to feel proud about being citizens of a great, developed nation. He cites the example of an Israeli newspaper that puts the achievement of its farmer as the lead news, whereas the news of a terrorist attack by Hamas on its country gets a place on the middle pages. But Indian newspapers and television give prominence to violence, bloodshed, and all sorts of negative news. Dr. Kalam urges us to be always active and positive in the service of our nation.
Dr. Kalam gives a vital message to the citizens of India for building this developed India. His mantra for this is,”Don’t ask what this country has or can do for you; ask how you can contribute to the development of this nation” He cites examples of the behavior of Indians when they go to foreign countries. When Indians go abroad, they can’t afford to break laws. They follow the law very carefully, and then they talk about the good governance, cleanliness, health, and hygiene of those countries. However, the same persons who praise foreign countries do not respect Indian laws and the code of civilian ethics. They blame the government or systems for their failures. That’s why Dr. Kalam urges the citizens of India to stop waiting for a Mr. Clean to come and make this country an ideal place to live. He asks us to work sincerely and honestly to the best of our capacity to build this great nation. This is a very convincing and inspiring talk by Dr. Kalam.
Learning from the West
N.R. Narayan Murthy
The speech entitled”Learning from the Wes” by N.R. Narayan Murthy was delivered to perceive the importance/relevance of Western values in contemporary Indian society. Initially, he defines a community as a unified multitude and then goes on to say that the Vedas say that man can live individually but can survive only collectively. So, a balance of interests is essential for communal harmony. It is important to develop a value system where people will sacrifice personal good for the common good. According to Murthy, a value system is the protocol for behavior which enhances trust, confidence, and commitment. He firmly believes that loyalty to family and loyalty to community are the pillars of a social value system. In a joint family, the members work for the welfare of the entire family. However, the writer regrets that this familial attitude is not reflected in the attitude towards the community.
But in the West, people are aware of their responsibility towards their community/society. Further, the writer underlines the fundamental difference between Westerners and Indians. According to him, people in the West have better attitudes and beliefs compared to Indians, and as a consequence, they care for the welfare of their society. However, Indians do not have a caring attitude towards society, and thus the quality of public life suffers. It is necessary for Indians to care for the public good. The society in the West is corruption-free. Unfortunately, in India, bribery and apathy in solving the problems of the community have kept society backward. According to the writer, the reason for the deplorable condition of India is that Indians believe that public issues belong to some foreign ruler and they will solve the problems. Thus, Indians have lost the will to solve their problems.
Another attribute of a progressive society is respect for others who have more, to learn from them. However, Indian leaders misguide society into believing that other societies have nothing to offer us. Indian leaders must remember that the greatest fault is not to acknowledge the goodness and qualities of others. So, if Indians want to progress, they have to change their attitude and pay heed to people who are better than them. Further, the writer stresses another attribute that Indians can learn from Western people: their sense of accountability. There, one is held responsible for what one does, irrespective of his position. However, in India,”importan” people are not answerable to anyone. Besides, the dignity of labor is a central value of the Western system. In India, for instance, the writer has seen many engineers, fresh from colleges, who only do cutting-edge work and do not make any effort that is of relevance to business and the country. Therefore, Indians need to change their mindset and respect everyone who puts in honest work.
According to the writer, Indians must learn professionalism. In the West, people do not let their personal relations come in conflict with their professional dealings. Western parents, from the time their children are very young, teach them to think for themselves. Therefore, these children grow up as strong and confident adults. However, in India, Indians suffer from feudal thinking. Even bright people prefer to carry out the orders of their bosses/seniors. Indians need to overcome this attitude if they want to succeed globally. The writer stresses that the Western value system teaches respect for contractual obligations. However, the writer’s experience in India, in this regard, is very unfortunate. The writer had given recommendations to many students for US universities, but most of them did not return to India even though they were contractually obliged to spend five years in India after obtaining their degrees. In the end, the writer underscores the importance of obligations and duties vis-à-vis rights.
A Living God
Patrick Lafcadio Hearn
From the beginning of human history, people have had to face natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc. The tsunami in the recent past in India on the southern coasts (2004) destroyed the lives of thousands of people. Japan is a nation where tsunamis and earthquakes have been occurring constantly. In this narrative about Hamaguchi, we learn how, sometimes, humans can face natural disasters with their alertness. The narrative refers to a custom in ancient Japan. According to Shinto religious customs, certain persons, while still alive, were honored by having temples built for their spirits and were treated like gods because of their extraordinary actions of kindness, courage, etc. The story records an incident in the life of Hamaguchi. At the time of its occurrence, he was an old man and the most important resident (muraosa) of the village to which he belonged. He performed the role of the headman, settled disputes among the villagers, and maintained law and order in the village. He was greatly respected because of this. His house was located on high land on the coast. The village was located on the shore. Hamaguchi could see the village from his house.
One evening, his family members had gone to the village for a celebration. Hamaguchi was not feeling well, so he stayed at home with his ten-year-old grandson. As he was looking out from his balcony, he experienced an earthquake shock, but earthquakes were usual in his area, and people did not care about minor shocks. However, Hamaguchi felt that it was a strange earthquake. He thought that it was a long, slow, spongy motion that came from underwater action very far away in the sea. He felt that something unusual was happening. When he looked at the sea, it had become dark suddenly, and the water was running away from the land. Suddenly, there was a great ebb, the receding tide. The villagers also noticed this, and they ran towards the sea to watch this unfamiliar scene.
Hamaguchi had never seen such an ebb before. He sensed a tsunami was going to take place soon. But he had no time to send a message to the villagers. The villagers were usually alarmed by the ringing of the big bell in the temple. Now, Hamaguchi did not have time to inform the village priest. He called his grandson and asked him to bring a burning torch. He then went to his fields, where hundreds of rice-stacks were kept. This rice was the produce of his fields, and he had invested most of his money in crop production. It was soon to be transported to the market. Hamaguchi lit all the rice-stacks with the torch, and there was a huge fire that could be seen from the village below. His grandson could not understand why he had set his entire crop on fire. When the villagers saw the fire in the fields, they immediately hurried towards it, where Hamaguchi waited for them. He told them to let it burn. The temple assistant saw it and rang the big bell to inform the villagers. Very soon, most of the villagers reached the spot. His grandson, now crying, told them that grandfather had set the fire; he said that grandfather had gone mad. Hamaguchi agreed that he had set the crop on fire and asked whether all the villagers had come. The villagers could not understand the reason for his actions. Then, he pointed to the sea, from where a huge tsunami was approaching.
The village was destroyed within moments. But all the villagers, as they were on the high ground, were saved. Hamaguchi had set the fire so that the villagers would rush to his land. He did not care about his crop. He only wanted to save the lives of his fellow villagers. As a result of the fire, he had become a poor person. Still, he invited all the people to stay in his house, which was the only house remaining in the village. The temple on the hill was also safe. The villagers could take shelter in these two places. In those days, help from outside could not come quickly, and it took several days for the villagers to recover from the loss. They started revering Hamaguchi as a divine person because it was only due to his sacrifice that their lives were saved. They declared him a god and thereafter called him Hamaguchi Daimyojin, the living God. Even today, his temple stands in the village, and the farmers pray to his spirit for strength and courage.
The story of Hamaguchi is an account of selfless action and presence of mind. Hamaguchi represents those people who do not care for personal wealth. It teaches us that we can save ourselves from calamities through our intelligent actions. The spirit of selflessness is a great quality. Hamaguchi was declared a living god because he earned the respect of his fellow human beings through his actions.
My Mistress’s Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun
William Shakespeare
A Shakespearean sonnet is a 14-line lyric poem that has three quatrains (a quatrain consists of four lines) and a rhyming couplet (consisting of two lines). This sonnet is also presented in three quatrains and a couplet. This sonnet is known for its simplicity and frankness of expressions, and it gives a message in a simple way that the beauty of his beloved cannot be compared to the beautiful objects and phenomena of nature. In the very first line, the lover says that his beloved’s eyes are not at all like the sun. From here onwards, the speaker presents a description of the beloved in exactly the opposite manner to the tradition. The reader becomes familiar with the humor in the next line. He says that the precious red gemstone (coral) is far redder than her lips; his beloved’s lips are pale and not red.
The breasts and skin of the beloved were usually described by poets to be whiter than snow. Here, the speaker presents a contrast by saying that her breasts are of a dull brownish color (dun). Here, the speaker has cleared out the fact that his mistress is dark-colored. The hair was usually compared to golden wires (used in jewelry or embroidery); to present the opposite of this, the speaker says that his mistress’s hair is like black wires. This is a further shock to the reader. Here, the first quatrain ends.
The second quatrain continues in the description and comparison. Normally, the rose flower comes in three main varieties: white, red, and pale red/pink (damasked); the lover in a sonnet would describe the breath of the mistress to be sweeter than all perfumes; therefore, the speaker has to make an opposite statement: some perfumes are more delightful than her breath or smell. The speech of the mistress should be the sweetest sound/music for the lover, but in this sonnet, the lover says that though he loves to hear her voice, he knows that the sound of music is sweeter than her voice.
In the third quatrain, the speaker refers to the tradition in which a lady was often compared to a goddess. He says that he has never seen a goddess walking by. His beloved is a human being, and she walks on earth (not in the sky like a goddess). Now, to make the final statement, the speaker says that though his beloved cannot be compared with the beauty of nature, the speaker’s love for his beloved is very precious and valuable (rare). Here, in the final couplet, the sonneteer declares that the comparison of his beloved with heavenly objects is not important because his beloved is beautiful, though she may not look extraordinarily beautiful. Hence, she need not be falsely compared with other beautiful objects.
Shakespeare’s view about love is very unconventional. Usually, a lady was loved for her physical appearance, and most of the time, her beauty was praised in such a decorative manner that very often it appeared to be artificial. The lover in this poem is sincere enough to admit that his beloved does not possess exquisite beauty or heavenly qualities. The implicit question is whether a person should be loved for his/her physical appearance. What should be really valued? Should true love give importance to the physically attractive aspect? Such a non-traditional view is presented by the poet in a very skillful manner in this sonnet. In presenting his view poetically, he mocks the traditional sonneteers. The humorous tone of the poem dominates the narration. The careful arrangement of the words and the use of poetic devices show Shakespeare’s command of the poetic art. The rhyming scheme of the poem is similar to that of other sonnets of Shakespeare: abab, cdcd, efef, and gg.