Western Ethics: A Journey Through Moral Philosophy
Item 10: Ethics of Happiness and Justice
The Origins of Western Ethics
1.1 The Homeric Poems: Virtue and Community
Born in Greece, particularly in the Homeric poems, Western ethics emerged not as a philosophical way of thinking but through literature. These poems present a world reflecting moral philosophy based on three key elements:
- The concept of good as doing something useful, especially for the community.
- Virtue understood as excellence and the ability to excel, granting a certain power to the virtuous.
- The pursuit of being the best in order to provide service to the community.
1.2 The Socratic Attitude
Socrates, considered the creator of Western ethics, raised fundamental ethical questions. During his time, a group of philosophers known as Sophists (wise men) emerged, teaching this type of education for money. This era introduced several key concepts:
- The relentless pursuit of truth.
- The opposition of truth-seeking to dogmatism.
- The importance of dialogue.
Socrates called his method maieutics and applied it universally. He believed in the necessity of doing well, linking wisdom, virtue, and happiness. He also posited that it is impossible to knowingly do evil; those who do evil do so out of ignorance, a position known as moral intellectualism.
Happiness Defined in Many Ways
2.1 Three Models of Happiness
The question “What could I do to be happy?” lies at the origin of ethics in Greece. Philosophers offered various answers, with three prominent models emerging:
- Happiness as self-realization (eudaemonism).
- Happiness as self-sufficiency.
- Happiness as experiencing pleasure and avoiding pain (hedonism).
Aristotle believed happiness meant being human in the fullest sense of the word, while Epicurus questioned what motivates human action, believing happiness is the ultimate goal.
2.2 Happiness as Self-Realization: Eudaemonism
Happiness is the ultimate moral good. It is:
- A perfect good.
- Sufficient in itself.
- Achieved through the exercise of the most typical human activity: virtue.
- Achieved through continuous activity.
Theoretical and Practical Knowledge in Life
Each person has a role in society, and excelling in that role requires acquiring virtues. Actions with inherent purpose are considered more perfect than those with external aims. These characteristics are found in the exercise of theoretical, contemplative activity. Therefore, Aristotle concluded that happiness lies in the exercise of this activity. Dianoetic virtue is prudence. Ethical policy requires individual happiness, which in turn requires a polis, a city with just laws.
2.3 Happiness and Self-Sufficiency
The history of philosophy is divided into three periods:
- Pre-Socratic philosophers.
- The time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
- The Post-Aristotelian period.
“Wise is he who knows how to be happy.”
Cynics
Cynicism emphasizes the radical freedom of the individual against social norms and institutions. It posits that man is good by nature and wise when living according to nature. Antisthenes founded this movement, but its most well-known figure is Diogenes.
Stoics
The term “stoic” comes from the painted portico of the agora. Stoics believed in living according to nature and sought to understand the order of the cosmos. They followed Heraclitus of Ephesus, who explained the cosmic order as governed by a common reason. Stoics valued peace of mind, achieved through becoming insensitive to suffering and opinions. Besides Zeno, famous Stoics included Chrysippus of Soli and the Romans Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.
2.4 Happiness as Pleasure: Hedonism
Hedonism suggests that morality exists because humans seek pleasure and avoid pain. It explores the motives of human behavior, similar to psychology. “Moral intellect is a calculating intellect.”
Epicureanism
Originating in Greece, Epicureanism emphasizes calculated enjoyment. The wise person knows how to organize their life by calculating which pleasures are most intense and lasting. Wisdom stems from calculating pleasure and intellect. Epicurus of Samos founded this school.
Utilitarianism
Born in the Anglo world, utilitarianism is a form of social hedonism. It posits that humans possess social feelings, such as sympathy. The goal of morality is to achieve the greatest happiness (pleasure) for the greatest number of beings. This principle serves as a criterion for rational decision-making. Jeremy Bentham introduced an arithmetic of pleasures based on two assumptions:
- Pleasure is quantifiable, with all pleasures being equal in quality.
- Pleasures can be compared to achieve maximum total pleasure.
John Stuart Mill rejected this, arguing that pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity, distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures.
More recently, a distinction has emerged between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism.
Ethical Justice
Kant initiated the tradition of ethics focused on duty, rules, and formality. This approach emphasizes the form of rules rather than their content.
3.1 Ethical Formalism
Critique of Material and Heteronomous Ethics
Kant labeled preceding ethical theories as “material ethics” because they focused on the content of good, and “heteronomous ethics” because they relied on external sources for moral guidance. He criticized these approaches because:
- They portray the will as heteronomous rather than autonomous.
- They consider duties as merely instrumental in achieving a predetermined goal.
Humans possess a conscience that imposes duties upon themselves.
Moral Conscience: The Categorical Imperative
Mandates compel us to act in certain ways. There are two types:
- Hypothetical mandates: Obligate only those who desire a specific end; the action is a means to an end; they are reasonable advice.
- Categorical mandates: Obligate universally and unconditionally; command without promising anything in return (e.g., “do not kill”); they are moral controls.
The Form of Moral Duties
Moral duties possess formal characteristics derived from reason. A maxim or principle must meet the following criteria:
- Universality.
- Respect for beings as ends in themselves, recognizing their absolute value.
- Contribution to a universal law in a kingdom of ends.
“We are self-legislating.”
Implications of Autonomy
- Human dignity: An autonomous being is unique and priceless.
- Good will: Moral goodness lies in having good will.
- The highest good: “The virtuous are happy.” The union of moral goodness (good will) and happiness is the highest good.
3.2 The Material Ethics of Values
An Alternative to Formalism
Max Scheler criticized Kantian formalism, arguing that Kant mistakenly believed humans possess only reason and sensibility. Kant’s reliance on reason for universal and unconditional morality overlooks the emotional and value-based aspects of the human spirit, according to Scheler.
Pure Axiology
Values are qualities with inherent content, independent of our perception. They are grasped not through reason or senses but through a priori emotional intuition. A pure science of values rests on three principles:
- All values are positive or negative.
- There is a relationship between value and duty.
- Values exist in a strict hierarchy.
3.3 Procedural Ethics
Emerging in the 1970s, procedural ethics emphasizes rational procedures. Two relevant examples are:
- Discourse ethics (Karl-Otto Apel and Jürgen Habermas): Seeks an “ideal speech situation” among those affected by a rule.
- John Rawls’s “original position”: An ideal negotiation process.
Discourse Ethics
Discourse ethics begins with the observation that people argue about norms and seek to determine what is morally right. Two attitudes can be adopted:
- Discussing without a genuine desire to determine the correctness of a rule.
- Engaging in serious dialogue to understand the issue and determine the rule’s validity.
Meaningful Dialogue
Serious arguments about norms require the following assumptions:
- All beings capable of communication are valid interlocutors.
- Not all dialogues can determine a rule’s correctness. A specific type of dialogue, called discourse, is required.
Two principles guide the discourse:
- The principle of universalization.
- The principle of discourse ethics.
The ideal discourse occurs in an ideal speech situation, which is the goal of applied ethics.
3.4 Universalism and Communitarianism
There is ongoing debate between proponents of individual ethics, community ethics, and universal ethics.
- Communitarians criticize universal principles for potentially leading to a loss of community.
- Universalists criticize group solidarity as potentially hindering true, universal solidarity.