Weimar Republic, WWII Origins and Key Pacts
The Weimar Republic
When all the empires fell apart after World War I, the majority of the states formed democratic republics. The early years of the Weimar Republic faced challenges, including opposition from both left and right-wing political extremists.
Left-Wing Opposition
The Communist Party of Germany emerged from the Marxist Spartacus League under the leadership of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. They wanted a government based on the Russian revolutionary model. In 1919, there was an uprising in Berlin, which the government suppressed with the help of the Freikorps. Both leaders were assassinated.
Right-Wing Opposition
Right-wing nationalists opposed any democratic system. They subscribed to the ‘stab in the back’ myth, which blamed Weimar politicians for Germany’s surrender and felt they had betrayed the army.
Crisis of 1923
The Weimar Republic nearly collapsed due to economic problems.
Economic Crisis and Hyperinflation
When Germany failed to pay all the damages caused by the war, French and Belgian troops conquered a small part of Germany. Then, Germany tried to repay all the damages and stabilize the economy by printing more money, but this led to hyperinflation, which made prices increase out of control.
The Beer Hall Putsch
On November 8, Adolf Hitler staged a coup d’état, which failed, and he was imprisoned. However, he returned in 1925 to challenge the Republic again.
The Golden Era
The Dawes Plan
American politician Charles Dawes proposed a plan to help Germany out of the crisis. It involved:
- Reorganizing the Reichsbank
- Allowing more time to repay the debt
- Extending new loans from American banks to pay reparations
- Using reparation money to pay off war debts to the United States
The Locarno Treaties
On the political front, the Allied powers and Germany signed a series of agreements to guarantee peace in Europe. The treaties established the western borders of Germany. France and Belgium withdrew from the Ruhr, and Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926.
The Decline
Hitler’s Rise to Power
After the 1932 elections, the Nazi Party formed a coalition government with the conservatives. In January 1933, Hitler became the Chancellor and immediately took action to make himself absolute ruler. The Weimar Republic came to an end.
Potsdam Conference, July-August 1945
Representatives: Attlee, Truman, and Stalin.
Germany had surrendered, but the war in the Pacific was still ongoing.
- There were disagreements over the details of how to divide Germany.
- It was agreed that war criminals would be punished severely in Germany and Japan.
- There were disagreements about the amount of reparations the Soviet Union would receive. Britain and the USA now found them excessive.
- Polish non-communist leaders had been arrested in Poland, so tensions between the two sides grew.
- The USA and Great Britain were concerned because communist non-democratic governments were appearing in Eastern Europe.
- Truman didn’t tell Stalin about the atomic bomb. When the bomb was dropped on Japan, a long conflict began between the USA and USSR.
Yalta Conference, February 1945
Representatives: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin.
Yalta was held before Germany surrendered.
- The partition of Germany and Berlin into four zones under Allied control. France would be given a fourth zone out of the American and British zones.
- The demilitarization and denazification of Germany.
- Germany would pay reparations, half of which would go to the Soviet Union.
- A Polish provisional government of national unity, made up of communists and non-communists, would be set up. Stalin pledged to allow free elections.
- Eastern Europe could form ‘a Soviet sphere of influence’ or buffer zone to avoid future invasions.
- The Declaration of Liberated Europe pledged that nations previously under the control of Germany would become democratic and self-governing countries.
- Russia would join the war in the Pacific after the defeat of Germany.
- They discussed the creation of an international peacekeeping body called the United Nations. Russia agreed to join it.
International Pacts
The Axis Powers
The formation of diplomatic alliances between Germany, Italy, and Japan were based on their common interest in territorial expansion and the destruction of communism.
Rome-Berlin Axis
November 1, 1936. An alliance between Italy and Germany in which they agreed to support Franco in the Spanish Civil War.
Anti-Comintern Pact
November 25, 1936. Germany and Japan joined together against the threat of communism, but mainly against the Soviet Union. Italy signed the pact a year later.
Pact of Steel
May 22, 1939. This military alliance between Germany and Italy officially formed the Axis Powers. Japan joined in 1940, and the alliance became known as the Tripartite Pact.
The Non-Aggression Pact
Hitler thought that Chamberlain was too weak and wouldn’t do anything to protect Poland, and France wouldn’t do anything without Britain. In addition, he had the support of Italy. Once he had the Nazi-Soviet Pact, he would be ready to invade. On August 23, 1939, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin signed the pact, which guaranteed Russia’s neutrality at a time when a conflict was about to break out on its western front. The pact also included a secret protocol, which divided Poland between Hitler and Stalin and the occupation of the Baltic States by Russia. On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, France and the UK declared war on the Third Reich, marking the start of World War II in Europe.
Road to WWII
Japan invades Manchuria 1931, the following year it sets up the satellite state of Manchukuo. The island nation is the most powerful country in the Far East.
Germany leaves the League of Nations 1933, a move by the new government that leads to the collapse of the Weimar Republic, eventually allowing Hitler to rearm and start conflicts.
Italian expansionism 1935, Italy invades Abyssinia, present-day Ethiopia, to increase its colonial empire in East Africa.
Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936, Adolf Hitler sends German military forces into the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland. This breaks the Locarno Pact and the Treaty of Versailles.
Second Sino-Japanese War 1936, the war between China and Japan starts. Russia, Great Britain, France, and the United States aid China.
The Japanese brutally murder soldiers and civilians and, in particular, they attack women during the Nanjing Massacre.
The bombing of Guernica 1937.
Austria and Sudetenland annexation 1939, Germany breaks the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and unites Germany with Austria and the German-speaking areas of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.
The Invasion of Western Europe
Blitzkrieg, or lightning warfare, was based on surprise and speed. The Wehrmacht wanted to fight the war offensively and win quickly. They used FM radio communication, which meant that decisions could be made in real-time. This form of attack was first used in the invasion of Poland.
The Invasion of Northern Europe
April 1940. Denmark surrenders a few hours after the Germans attack, on April 9, 1940. Norway falls on June 10. After this disastrous defeat, Neville Chamberlain resigns. Winston Churchill replaces him as British Prime Minister.
The Invasion of Western Europe
May-June 1940. In six weeks, Germany successfully invades Western Europe: the German army occupies Luxembourg on May 10; the Netherlands surrenders on May 14, and Belgium on May 28. On June 22, Germany forces France to sign an armistice. France is divided into two: the north and west are controlled by Germany. In southern France, a collaborationist regime under General Pétain is established, called Vichy France, its capital is the town of Vichy.
Evacuation of Dunkirk
May 26-June 4, 1940. The German invasion of France splits the Allied troops in two. Those in the north retreat towards the beaches of Dunkirk, where the Allies evacuate them. From May 26 to June 4, a fleet ranging from battleships to pleasure boats travels back and forth across the Channel to save the soldiers. The evacuation is a stunning success that enables the Allies to fight another day.
Britain Stands Alone
The Invasion of Britain
July-September 1940. The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) and the Royal Air Force (RAF) fight for the control of the skies, in a battle known as the Battle of Britain. The Luftwaffe initially attacks airfields and radar stations. Hitler then changes his strategy, which proves a strategic error, to air raids on London, in September 1940. This was the start of the Blitz. Radar technology, used for the first time in battle, gives the RAF early warning of attacks by the enemy, and their planes are a match for the German ones. Hitler calls off the invasion in September. This is Hitler’s first defeat and an important win for Britain.
The War in Africa
September 1940. Italian troops enter Egypt (a British protectorate) from the Italian colony of Libya. The British win back the lost Egyptian territory and the trade routes. Hitler sends the German Afrika Korps and General Erwin Rommel to help the Italians in April 1941. Rommel recaptures the territory lost by the Italians.
The War in the Balkans
October 1940. Italian troops invade Greece from Albania. The attack is a total failure, and in April 1941, Hitler has to come to their rescue. Together, they force the British to leave Greece and go on to occupy Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, gaining control of the Balkans.
The Lend-Lease Act
January 1941. Roosevelt’s administration is allowed to give aid to Britain.