War of Independence and Political Revolution in 1808
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and Revolution
Background: Crisis in the Old Regime
The old regime was characterized by a stratified structure inherited from the Middle Ages and significant economic problems across Europe. Charles IV was an inept ruler with little political interest; his wife largely controlled political affairs.
Foreign Policy: Spain initially attempted to isolate itself from France (‘Florida Blanca’ policy). Aranda tried to avoid the king’s execution until 1796. Godoy then initiated a rapprochement with France, leading to two wars against England and two significant defeats: the Battle of St. Vincent and the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
A conspiracy, the Conspiracy of El Escorial, was directed by Fernando, the heir to the throne.
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807)
France imposed a continental blockade against England, prohibiting British ships from landing in any French-controlled port. Spain allowed French troops to pass through its territory to conquer Portugal, based on a treaty that the French ultimately disregarded.
Murat organized the occupation, leading to further uprisings in Spain. Charles IV went into exile with his wife and Godoy.
Abdications of Bayonne
This was a trap set by Napoleon, who forced Ferdinand VII to abdicate in favor of Charles IV, who then abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who then abdicated in favor of his brother, Joseph I. The Popular Uprising of May 2, 1808, was brutally suppressed.
Start of the War of Independence (1808 to 1814)
Initially, France anticipated a swift victory due to Spain’s military weakness. However, the strong popular resistance forced them to lay siege to numerous cities. The English provided support to Spain, and together they defeated the French at the Battle of Bailén (Jaén). Spanish troops then marched to Madrid to oust Joseph I. Napoleon arrived with a large army and quickly regained control.
By 1810, all of Spain was occupied except for Cádiz. The Spanish established the Central Board, a government opposed to the French. The Spanish primarily engaged in guerrilla warfare, leading to severe reprisals. In 1811, the French were defeated in Portugal. In 1812, Napoleon occupied Russia. By 1813, Napoleon was defeated in Russia, and the French withdrew from Spain. In 1814, the Treaty of Valençay was signed, restoring the Spanish throne to Ferdinand VII.
Consequences of the War
- Demographic: High mortality rates led to a significant population decrease.
- Destruction: Cities and monuments were destroyed, and works of art, including those by El Greco, were lost.
- Economic: Most industries were destroyed.
- European Impact: The Spanish resistance revitalized European resistance against Napoleon and created numerous problems for him.
- The war initiated the process of American emancipation.
Government of Joseph I
Joseph I’s legitimacy rested solely on the support of his brother, Napoleon, who sought support from the Spanish people. He focused on the privileged and progressive elements of society. He created the Estatuto Real, the Bayonne Constitution (1808), a granted charter that specified broad powers for the monarchy but allocated some powers to the courts (the estates retained a legislative function, albeit with minimal capacity). It included the first declaration of individual rights and laid the foundation for future socio-economic changes, including limitations on the power of the church. These reforms reflected Enlightenment ideas, and Joseph I contributed his own liberal ideas.
He was supported by the afrancesados, a small group of highly trained and progressive intellectuals. They were exiled after the war, arguing for small, incremental changes, the protection of Spanish colonies (from England by France), and that resisting the invader would only bring tragedy.
Political Revolution
The people did not accept Joseph I as king and created their own organs of power, effectively ending the divine right to rule. National sovereignty was asserted, and local boards were organized, leading to the creation of Provincial Boards for administrative purposes. This culminated in the establishment of the Supreme Central Junta (Government). The Junta convened the Regency Council to modify institutions, which then gave way to the Council of Regency (Cádiz) before dissolving in 1810. The Cortes of Cádiz were created to receive power from the Regency Council before the Constituent Assembly dissolved, establishing a new state.