Vindictiveness and Appeasement: Origins of World War II
The policies of vindictiveness and appeasement in foreign relations were products of the First World War, largely as a result of the Treaty of Versailles.
The defeated nation of Germany, along with Italy (which felt it had not adequately benefited from the distribution of territories), sought revenge. Germany, in particular, was forced to surrender significant territory. These countries aimed to rebuild, regain their imperial structures, and return to being major powers.
The movement toward revenge began in earnest with Hitler’s rise to power in 1933. He initiated territorial conquests, withdrew from the League of Nations, and violated the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, all while facing an indifferent attitude from Western countries.
Italy, led by Mussolini, allied with Hitler in 1935 to participate in territorial expansion. Italy moved on Africa, taking Ethiopia. Germany advanced on Europe, and Japan joined the alliance by invading Manchuria in 1931, aiming to conquer all of Asia. With this division of territories, these countries sought to set aside tensions that might arise between them.
Both France and England accepted Germany’s rearmament and did not strongly oppose Japan’s aggression in China or Germany’s occupation of Austria and the Rhineland, using the League of Nations. This indifference is known as the policy of appeasement.
R. Hilberg argues that the measures taken by the Nazi regime against Jews, from Hitler’s rise in 1933, occurred in four phases:
Definition
Beginning in 1933, the Reich enacted the “Law of Recovery of Public Administration,” which stated that government officials who were not of Aryan descent were to be removed from their posts. An amendment was later added to clarify who was considered Aryan. Individuals needed to be directly descended from Aryans to retain their positions.
In 1935, the “Nuremberg Laws” were drafted. These laws stated that individuals who were descendants of three Jewish grandparents, were married to someone Jewish, belonged to the Jewish religion, or had Jewish parents and were born after the enactment of the second law, were affected by these decrees.
Those who did not meet any of these conditions were labeled “mixed blood.” They faced discrimination but were not subject to the death sentences imposed on Jews.
Expropriation
This phase involved measures that stripped Jews of their livelihoods, property, and financial reserves. The process began in 1933 when many Jews were dismissed from public office. This stage continued intermittently until 1937. In 1938, the regime sought to economically destroy the Jewish population. Everyone had to declare their assets, Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat non-Jewish patients, and Jewish lawyers were barred from practicing their profession. Any remaining savings were trapped in blocked accounts, with only fixed amounts allowed to be withdrawn.
Concentration
This phase separated Jews from the rest of the population as a result of the two previous stages. Any kind of relationship between Jews and non-Jews was forbidden. Housing constraints were implemented, with strict buildings designated for Jewish residents.
In 1939, after the occupation of Poland, these measures were tightened, and “ghettos” were formed. These were areas enclosed by high walls, which no one could cross without a special permit.
Annihilation
These three steps led to the final phase, annihilation, which was the initial plan. Synagogues were destroyed, and Jews were forced to wear badges (a blue band with a white Star of David). In November 1938, during “Kristallnacht” (the Night of Broken Glass), thousands of Jews were arrested, and many were killed. Subsequently, as the “final solution,” concentration camps were established where the mass killings of Jews began, resulting in what is known as the Holocaust.