Utilitarianism and Happiness: A Philosophical Inquiry
Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill
1. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethic that links the purpose of human action to happiness, achieved through useful actions. Simply put, it affirms that what is good is what is useful for our happiness.
Utilitarianism posits that diverse and contradictory individual moral desires can be reconciled through practice as a criterion for evaluating reality. This makes it an objectivist philosophy, ordering, educating, and evaluating reality from practice by minimizing subjective elements in human actions.
Functions of Utilitarian Ethics
Utilitarianism encompasses a theory of knowledge, sociology, and ethics. Its common denominator is the idea that we should be happy by doing what is useful. It has four key characteristics:
- Teleological: Human actions are meaningful for their purpose, which is to “be happy.” Utility is an instrument for happiness.
- Consequentialist: The good should be evaluated by its consequences. We know what is useful and good by evaluating the consequences of our choices.
- Prudential: Prudence is the first condition for happiness and usefulness. Being useful involves a relationship with society, making utilitarianism sometimes appear relativistic.
- Aggregation: Utilitarians believe in calculating or quantifying pleasure or happiness.
Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism
- Act Utilitarianism: Calculates the behavior that maximizes pleasure or happiness in each circumstance, without predefined rules.
- Rule Utilitarianism: Attempts to universalize utilitarian standards, aiming for “maximum pleasure for the greatest number.” Good or evil is judged by the consequences of a universally applied rule.
John Stuart Mill’s critique of his father’s view on women’s suffrage illustrates this difference. James Mill saw women’s suffrage as pointless, merely increasing paperwork without changing election outcomes. John Stuart Mill argued that even if true, this ignored women’s dignity, violating a rule necessary for happiness.
2. The Principle of Utility
2.1 The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number
Jeremy Bentham first consistently defended the principle of utility, stating “the greatest happiness for the greatest number” as the supreme criterion for morality and politics. James Mill shared Bentham’s reformist spirit, but his son, John Stuart Mill, provided the most nuanced formulation of utilitarianism, a philosophy often considered foundational to democracy.
The Foundation of the Principle of Utility
Mill argues that all human desires aim for happiness, requiring no further proof of its desirability.
The Content of Happiness
Problems arise when associating pleasure with happiness. Mill criticizes Bentham for prioritizing quantity over quality of pleasure. There are higher (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures. Mill includes contributing to collective happiness among the higher pleasures. He emphasizes that human progress involves incorporating the good of others into our happiness.
3. The Construction of Moral Sentiment
3.1 Sociability: The Moral Foundation
According to Mill, we have a natural feeling of belonging to a social collective. Education should cultivate moral sentiment. Defending the interests of all serves our own interest. The sentiment for the good of others is innate.
Internal and External Sanctions
Mill believes moral sense is acquired, and the utilitarian principle is rooted in human sociability. This moral sense becomes internalized, an inner feeling guiding conduct. However, this feeling isn’t strong enough for most. Moral sense is the ultimate validation, but the strength of any standard relies on external feelings.
Association between Good and Pleasure
Mill uses the principle of association of ideas to explain mental phenomena. He stresses the need to link good and pleasure. By associating virtue with happiness, we act not from desire but from a habit that makes us feel good when acting well.