US History: 18th Century Conflicts and Foundations
18th Century Quapaws
They also took advantage of their relationship with Europeans. They were equally dominant over their land compared to the Osage but they used different methods. The French viewed the Quapaws as ideal trading and military allies. Their relationship with the French in the 1700s made them much more powerful.
18th Century Creek (Muscogee) Confederacy
They put escaped slaves into their society. The Creeks had a strong leader named Chief Brims. They were the biggest hunters and processors of deer skins in the Southeast. They were a powerful force within the region. Compared to the Osage, they were surrounded by the British, French, and Spanish, but formed alliances with each to increase their own power through the use of escaped slaves and refugees.
Chief Brims
Helped the Muscogee use strategy to defeat Europeans. He decided they should live in peace with the Spanish, English, and French. He advised to ally with the Europeans even when they are at war with each other, but do not fight in their fights to maintain peace.
Ohio Land Company
Based in Virginia, it was founded by a group of wealthy people, including brothers Lawrence and Augustine Washington. It was founded by speculators, people who have capital and can buy land at large quantities, make roads, make land appealing, then divide the land up and sell it to other people for farming, etc. The British King granted the company 200,000 acres in the Ohio Land Valley. But this land did not belong to the British, but rather to the Natives and the French. The Colonial Governor of Virginia decided to send a force of Virginia militiamen into Ohio, appointing George Washington a general of the militia. Washington and his men marched out to Ohio and discovered Fort Duquesne with French soldiers. Washington, wanting to go home not empty-handed, ambushed the French and easily won. They then built their own British Fort. The French found out about the fort and attempted to take it, resulting in the British surrendering. Washington marched back defeated. Word got back to the King and the British, wanting a reason to go to war, declared the start of the Seven Years’ War.
Braddock’s Defeat
Braddock was sent with 200 regular troops to join up with Washington and troops to take over Fort Duquesne. Braddock and Washington walked into an ambush. Of the 2,000 British soldiers, there were nearly a thousand casualties. Only a handful of French casualties. Washington almost died and Braddock was killed. Washington was forced to take the lead and surrender, but was successful in gaining status with the British Crown.
First Treaty of Paris
This is what ended the Seven Years’ War in North America. It was signed after the British took Quebec, the capital of New France. Everything in mainland North America became British. The French now had no territory in North America. The British also took Florida but gave the Southwest US to the Spanish.
Pontiac’s War (1763)
Former allies of the French continued and strengthened the war against the British. It was based on the philosophy of nativism. All Native Americans have to band together to push back against the British. Pontiac and other nativists had made successful attacks on British posts, killing and capturing over 2,000 colonists. This forced the British back to the negotiating table.
Nativism
This was a radical idea among Native Americans. All Native Americans should unite together and become one unit. Native Americans and Europeans were created by different people. God intended for people to stay where they were put. Europeans have messed this up, bringing them as well as Africans onto their land.
Proclamation of 1763
This was a line dividing America, giving the British all land east of a specific line. But natives got all land west. The British promised to protect the line and land, but obviously, this would not happen as they would soon break the treaty. Britain’s national debt nearly doubled as a result of the Seven Years’ War, so they raised taxes on colonists, hence the coming of the revolution.
Republicanism
Republicanism was a gamble. Not a political party but a political system. Living under a republic, being governed by a republic was radical thinking at the time, as it was governed by the people. Decision-making rests with the people rather than with a king. Landowners and white men were up for positions within the republic.
The Stamp Act (1765)
Parliament passed the Stamp Act. A tax on various colonial documents. If you wanted to print documents, it had to be on stamped paper, including newspapers, pamphlets, contracts, licenses, diplomas, etc. Although the Stamp Act was not that much money, it was the first tax that seemed its only purpose was to make money for the crown.
Sons of Liberty
Founded by Samuel Adams. The group will be the most ready to use violence to oppose the Stamp Act. In August of 1765, there was a street demonstration against the Stamp Act. They gathered in the streets and tore apart the stamp act collecting, bulking, and stamp tax collectors’ houses. The next morning, Andrew Oliver (stamp tax collector) resigned. This is significant because it led to the British getting rid of the tax but issuing smaller taxes such as the tea tax or other custom duties.
Daughters of Liberty
Women in Boston organized chapters that were focused on consumption and boycotts. Women were the primary buyers for households and it was essential that women were involved with boycotts and pledged not to buy the boycotted goods and make substitutes for them. This represented the idea that this is a slippery slope of giving liberties and rights to those who shouldn’t be in government, colonial folly.
Boston Massacre
Redcoats came to defend soldiers. People in the crowd started throwing snowballs. One of them hit a soldier who slipped and stumbled and his gun went off, other soldiers began to fire and included 11 people shot, 5 killed. All around the colonies, people were shocked, the Sons and Daughters of Liberty began calling this the Boston Massacre. This led to the British backing down all taxes other than tea.
Committees of Correspondence
These created local committees to enforce the boycotts and to coordinate boycotts across colonies. They agreed to meet again the following May.
Lexington & Concord
Massachusetts was gearing up for a possible militia to wage war, and the governor ordered for all of the weapons to be seized and the people to be jailed. At Lexington, someone started firing, and eight colonists had been killed after the encounter. A larger fight had broken out by the end, and this was the first battle between the two sides.
Common Sense
This was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. Revolution is not crazy but rather common sense. Paine argues the three things that started the revolution were not crazy: independence from Britain, uniting the colonies, and instituting a Republican government. It sold 150,000 copies. Significant because it shifted public opinion in colonies and colonial legislative bodies. But the blame on the king, including slavery and the slave trade.
Battle of Bunker Hill (1775)
In June of 1775, the colonists were trying to force British troops outside of Boston. They needed high ground to bombard the city, two hills that would do: Bunker and Breed’s Hill. At night, colonists climbed the hill. The British wanted to end the revolution without casualties and just make the rebels go home. The British tried to persuade them to just give up and run away. Militiamen did not back down and killed a good amount of redcoats. Although the British did eventually take the hill, it ended up being the worst loss for the British in the entirety of the war as it had a thousand casualties. The British won, but it was a meaningless victory.
The Continental Army had soldiers giving up a year of their lives to fight in the way, but most American men fought in militias. Washington realized that his main asset is the Continental Army (because militias are not reliable), so he retreated early to keep it alive. If American militias are in charge of the general population, then they are able to keep the American people on the side of the revolution.
Second Treaty of Paris (1783)
This was the end to the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin led the delegation and asked for Britain to evacuate its armies, recognize US independence, and ask for a border of the United States as far west as possible. The new government in London wanted friendship with America and wanted to draw the new country away from France. British delegates agreed on all three requests. Significant because the French and Spanish were not happy and did not agree with the Treaty of Paris. Native Americans were also not happy due to the removal of the proclamation line.
Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation (1775)
This was a proclamation issued by Britain. It stated that he would give freedom to any enslaved man of military age who is enslaved by a rebellion master. About a thousand enslaved people in and around Virginia escaped and joined Dunmore. Over the course of the war, the British made Dunmore’s proclamation a policy across all the colonies to get more forces. It is estimated to be around 100,000 slaves. Significant because it led to a change in people’s feelings about slavery as many northern states slowly started the abolition process.
Eliza Wilkinson
She wrote to her friend Mary in 1772, “the land of liberty, how sweet the sound.” Then carried on asking how women should be involved in the revolution. Women have just the same rights as so-called “lords” referring to men. Her letter goes from completely in support of the revolution to questioning gender roles.
Articles of Confederation
This established a permanent congress. It gave congress power over foreign relations and war and peace, including relations with Indian Nations. It established a post office. Significant because under the articles the US was not really a national government, it was rather a group of 13 states. It couldn’t levy taxes for the national government or establish a national army without permission from each state.
Federalists
Both parties agreed on independence. All agree on a republic government (government without a king). They did not believe in democracy. They believed common men should be able to vote if they have property. They believed that they should elect gentlemen, office holders, people who they elect should be gentlemen and the larger property holders. When the common men should vote, they should go home and mind their own business, trust the men you voted for between elections to run the country. They did not believe public opinions should be a part of the government. State legislation, popular legislation that was unjust.
Antifederalists
Pro-Republican Government and Independence, like federalists. More towards the democracy spectrum. More likely to trust common white men, tended to believe that any citizen who had voting rights should be able to run for office. Office holders should listen to public opinion, they should be servants to the people. Most men at the constitutional convention were Federalists. The Constitution is not written to create a democracy.
New Jersey Plan
Congressional Representation constant → Senate (Both bodies with constant rep.), Anti-Federalist plan, Tweak the Articles of Confederation, 3 states will be on the executive committee, Additional but little power to tax and regulate commerce.
Virginia Plan
Congressional Representation by population volume → House of Representatives (Both bodies by pop.), President, Bicameral congress, Federal Government much bigger and ability to veto any state law, Senate directly elected.
Hamilton’s Plan
President for life with complete veto power (no override), bicameral legislature, senators serve for life, supreme federal power (nation can veto any state law).
The US Constitution (1787)
Strong President but congress can override presidential veto, House of Representatives by population and Senate with equal representation, Cannot veto state laws, Says slaves are only ⅗ of a person.
3/5th Compromise
Abolished international slave trade 20 years after ratification (1808), Dealt with the representation of slaves, Southern power versus Northern power in the House of Representatives. Significant because it mattered for representation within the House of Representatives. States like Virginia wanted increased power and wanted slaves to count as a person to increase power. What they decided is every enslaved person in the state counts as ⅗ a person. This means white voters in states with a lot of enslaved people gave each white voter more power. Northerners were not happy about this compromise. Significant because seeds for the civil war are evident.
Jeffersonian Republicans
Promoted a Weak Federal government and Strict Constitution, France helped win independence and therefore ally more with France, Agriculture should be the basis of the republic, Sensitive to public opinion (Supportive of more democratic systems), Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Aaron Burr.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of treasury, the US had inherited a large debt running the war. Passed on to the new US. Over $50 million. With the new power, the US government puts into place import duties. They don’t want to place too high a price as Americans are sensitive to taxes. Washington, Adams, etc. have strong political and family ties to the merchant class, meaning they don’t like import duties. Instead, Hamilton and Washington propose a 25% sales tax on distilled spirits. Merchants who were lobbying and in congress supported this. Much of the debt not held by Spain or France was to wealthier merchants. Representatives in congress from New England did not support the tax but were not heavily against it since they drank wine and rum, meaning they wouldn’t pay tax as it was an import. Significant because the Whiskey tax was a mistake, the wealthy are profiting off their tax. Tax collectors go to Western Pennsylvania and West Virginia and are driven back by violence. In western Pennsylvania, farmers rushed the tax collector and federal marshall, burning the house of the tax collector and marched to Pittsburgh to repeal the tax. Washington and Hamilton nationalized the Pennsylvania militia, sent out to enforce the Whiskey tax. Hamilton and Washington also went themselves. Give questions. What can Americans do if the citizens think laws are unjust, what can the government do if citizens unlawfully protest?
The Revolution of 1800
This was the election of 1800. The Sedition Act passes → makes it illegal to slander or criticize the president → violate the bill of rights, how does that create judicial review? Newspapers continue to speak out, James Thompson Callendar imprisoned for sedition, Tie in presidential election between Thomas Jefferson/ Aaron Burr tied versus ??? → vote sent to House of Representatives, Hamilton decides that Jefferson is less evil than Burr so Jefferson becomes president. Federalists said it was crazy that Jefferson called the election a revolution and he didn’t actually win the majority and the 3/5ths compromise over-represented Southern votes. The most lasting change is that the country moves closer to a democracy rather than a republic, the government must listen to public opinion, Brings the first peaceful transfer of power between one power from another, the president shouldn’t look like a king, gets rid of sedition acts, gets rid of alien act (Harder for immigrants to become citizens), Takes away Whiskey Tax but because of imports soaring more revenue comes in anyway.
St. Clair’s Defeat (1791)
General Arthur Saint Clair led an army into Ohio. Washington warned St. Clair, “beware of surprise.” Clair did not take into account the advice, marches army into the Ohio valley under the purview of native nations. Little Turtle and his forces swept into the camp unopposed 630 American Military men killed. This was a huge disastrous defeat for the US clearly showing the US that even though they assumed all the native nations surrendered because of the Treaty of Paris, showed them just because the war against Britain was over, the war on native nations was not. It inspired natives to keep the US east of the Appalachians.
Alexander McGillivray
Scottish, Creek (Matrilineal), had a vision of bringing the creek confederacy together and joining other south Indian Nations that would draw parallels with those of the Ohio Valley. To join and fight against the US. He wanted Spanish support with Choctaws and Chickasaws, the British gave away Indian Land that they didn’t own, the Spanish have a different view of the continental United States and too hold land claims they ally with the Creeks.
Treaty of Pensacola (1784)
Signed between Creeks and Spanish, a treaty of Alliance to fight against the US. Says the treaty of Paris of 1783 was invalid in its claim that the British could give US land because it belonged to Native Americans. The Spanish have a claim of dominion over these places but on the ground, Native Americans own them. Creeks expect the king of Spain to protect them. It was very carefully worded and Spain agreed and promised they will secure the land that the Natives own. Spain made similar treaties with rival native nations.
Treaty of Greenville (1795)
The Battle of Fallen Timbers led to the Treaty of Greenville that ended the revolutionary war within the Ohio valley, 12 Native Nations made peace with the US and conceded land to the US (Ohio, Indiana, parts of Michigan and Illinois), the US claimed that it is the permanent boundary.
Pickney’s Treaty/ Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795)
Spain and the US finally agreed on a treaty, agreeing to what the continent looks like. The US will have access to the Mississippi River. Borders to the country are set, a line where Florida and some of the Gulf coast including New Orleans is Spanish. Significant because Native Nations are kept out of the treaty once again. As you trace the various treaties gradually the power and size of the US is growing. Things that happen strictly in Europe allow the US to significantly advance.
Empire of Liberty
Jefferson declared in his inaugural address the US will be an Empire of Liberty. He said the US will be a different kind of empire, one that spreads liberty. Spreading liberty for people, small farmers, Jefferson says the empire of liberty will also be good for Native Americans. If we think about the Natives, women farm and men hunt in larger areas, this is the reason for all their large land. Men start farming and Women work in the household. Then they will not need as much land. Transforming the landscape for westward expansion, led to massive deforestation.
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
New Orleans is vital to farmers in Tennessee, Kentucky, etc. In Europe, the French Revolution happens, Napoleon becomes consul of France and he uses the Republican system to become a dictator, he strong-arms the king of Spain into giving Louisiana back to France. Suddenly instead of having Spain on the border they have Napoleon and France. Very scary for the US due to Napoleon’s dangerous nature. The French sent 31,000 well-trained troops to Louisiana but on the way, the troops are supposed to quickly put down the Haitian Revolution. This does not happen and of the 31,000 sent, 27,000 died in Haiti. The British sense fear and wage war against France, Napoleon then has to sell gigantic pieces of land to the US in order to fund the war. Significant because this benefited Jefferson’s idea of the Empire of Liberty fueling rapid US territory growth.
Treaty of Ghent (December of 1814)
Peace was agreed upon, British and American negotiations agreed to end the war of 1812. It declared a stalemate, no new agreements. Basically, the two sides agreed to stop fighting and agree on the borders before the war. It says native nations in the upper Ohio Valley will also have their borders remain the same. It seems that the battle of New Orleans was the battle that led to the Treaty of Ghent. Significant because it solidifies that the United States would survive and be a world power.