US Expansion, Progressive Reforms, and World War I Impact

Posted on May 7, 2025 in History

American Imperialism Dynamics

Imperialism’s Foundations

The concept of an “Empire for Liberty” (Thomas Jefferson, 1808) laid some early groundwork.

Expansionism: Late 19th & Early 20th Century

Economic Drivers of Expansion

  • Search for raw materials and new markets for American goods.
  • Increased investments in Latin America.
  • Mining interests (e.g., leading to the Panama Canal).
  • Promotion of domestic consumption (e.g., “Buy American” campaigns).

Cultural & Spiritual Expansion

Efforts to spread American culture, including entrepreneurship and religious values.

Imperialism: Supporters & Critics

Supporters of Imperialism
  • Alfred Thayer Mahan: Argued a strong navy was key to national power in The Influence of Sea Power upon History.
  • Albert Beveridge: Senator and prominent advocate for expansion.
  • Theodore Roosevelt: Future president and proponent of American influence.
  • William Randolph Hearst: Newspaper magnate (Editor-in-Chief, New York Herald) who used his publications to support expansionist policies.
  • Josiah Strong: Clergyman who believed in the duty to spread American Christianity and civilization.
Critics: Anti-Imperialist League
  • Jane Addams: Social worker and reformer.
  • Mark Twain: Famed author and satirist.
  • William Jennings Bryan: Politician and three-time presidential candidate.
  • W.E.B. Du Bois: Sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist.

US Involvement: Cuba & the Philippines

  • Major exports from Cuba included sugar and tobacco.
  • Wealthy Creole plantation owners in Cuba had little political influence, as governance was controlled by Spanish officials.
  • José Martí: A Cuban nationalist leader who advocated for an independent Cuba inclusive of all races.
  • Key American figures associated with this period and the Spanish-American War include William Randolph Hearst and Theodore Roosevelt.

Early 20th Century: Politics & Reform

Progressivism: Social Justice Focus

A movement for social justice characterized by:

  • Being generally more effective than 19th-century reform efforts.
  • Involving a diverse coalition of people.
  • Operating as a bipartisan movement.
  • Primarily active from approximately 1900 to 1920.

Progressivism: Global Connections

Progressivism was part of a broader international movement, with similar efforts in:

  • Britain, France, Germany, and Scandinavia.
  • It was largely driven by middle-class liberalism, rather than radicalism.
  • Major issues addressed included:
    • Urban Improvement: City planning, zoning laws, demands for clean and safe housing, development of public parks and recreational facilities.
    • Democratizing Government: Professionalization of government services and increased grassroots access to political processes.
    • Rights of Women and Children: Campaigns for suffrage, labor protections, and child welfare.
    • Environmentalism: Conservation efforts championed by figures like John Muir and Gifford Pinchot.
    • World Peace: Initiatives aimed at international cooperation and conflict resolution.
    • Consumer Safety: Regulations to protect the public from harmful products and deceptive practices.

Progressives: Gender, Race, & Class Issues

Women’s Rights Advocacy

Advocacy for equal rights for women, with prominent figures like Margaret Sanger focusing on reproductive rights.

Progressives & Racial Justice Efforts

The era saw the founding of key organizations to combat racial discrimination:

  • The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
  • The National Urban League in 1911.

Presidential Progressive Agendas

Theodore Roosevelt: Square Deal

Roosevelt’s domestic program focused on three main goals (the “Three Cs”):

  • Conservation of natural resources.
  • Control of corporations.
  • Consumer protection.

Woodrow Wilson: New Freedom

Wilson’s progressive platform included significant financial reforms:

  • Creation of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), influenced by advisors like Louis Brandeis, to regulate business.
  • Establishment of the Federal Reserve Bank in 1913:
    • Addressed the need for a central banking system.
    • Set up 12 regional banks, legally tied to the federal government.
    • Granted the federal government sole authority to print money, establishing a single legal currency.
    • Aimed to strengthen the U.S. dollar internationally.
    • Provided a mechanism to manage the economy by influencing credit and money supply.

World War I & Its Aftermath

Allies: Britain, France, Russia, USA (joined 1917), Italy (joined 1915)

Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

WWI Outbreak & US Intervention

Roots of World War I Conflict (Late 1880s – Early 1900s)

The war’s origins were complex, stemming from various long-term factors:

  • Broader influences on international relations and alliances.
  • Key factors contributing to discord:
    • Nationalism: Intense pride and belief in national superiority, often leading to rivalries.
    • Militarism: Glorification of military power and the belief that a strong army was essential for national security and achieving national goals.
    • Imperialism: Competition among European powers like Britain, France, and Germany to control colonies and spheres of influence worldwide.

Initial US Stance & Path to War

  • Neutrality Acts: The U.S. initially declared neutrality.
  • Election of 1916: Woodrow Wilson won re-election, partly on the slogan “He Kept Us Out of War,” defeating Charles Evans Hughes.
  • U-boat Warfare: German submarine attacks on Allied and neutral shipping, including the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, angered Americans. In early 1917, Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare, declaring that “any ship sailing to England or France will be sunk.”
  • Zimmermann Telegram (January 1917): A secret diplomatic proposal from the German Foreign Office to Mexico, offering an alliance against the United States. Germany proposed that if the U.S. entered the war, Mexico should join Germany, and in return, Mexico would recover Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Its interception and publication fueled anti-German sentiment in the U.S.
  • U.S. Entry into War: On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany and officially entered World War I on the side of the Allies.

The War Effort: Aspects & Impact

WWI Casualties & Human Cost

  • Combined military and civilian casualties: Over 37 million.
  • Combined military and civilian deaths: Approximately 17 million.
  • Selected Military Deaths:
    • Britain: 702,917
    • France: 1,357,000
    • Germany: 1,773,700
    • USA: 116,708

Wartime Technological Advancements

WWI saw the introduction and widespread use of new military technologies, including:

  • Machine guns
  • Submarines (U-boats)
  • Armored vehicles and tanks
  • Grenades
  • Poison gas
  • Airplanes for reconnaissance and combat

Military Life in WWI

  • Experiences of soldiers, including poets like Joyce Kilmer.
  • Complex race relations within the U.S. armed forces, with African American soldiers often serving in segregated units.

Civilian Life & Societal Shifts During WWI

  • Impact on Civil Liberties: The government’s power expanded, and civil liberties were sometimes curtailed. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, for example, were criticized by some as violations of the individual’s right to be free from government control and freedom of speech.
  • Migrations: The war spurred significant internal migrations, including the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to northern cities, and increased migration of Mexicans to the U.S. for labor.
  • Economic & Cultural Changes: The war effort led to major economic mobilization and shifts in societal roles, including increased participation of women in the workforce.

Post-WWI: Ideals vs. Realities

Versailles Peace Conference & Treaty

  • Armistice signed: November 11, 1918.
  • The Treaty of Versailles (1919) formally ended the war.
  • Germany was forced to accept blame for the war (the “war guilt clause”) and pay substantial reparations.
  • France and Britain, among other Allies, sought to punish Germany and ensure their own security, demanding significant payments in commodities and cash.

The League of Nations Debate

  • Conceived by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson as a cornerstone of his Fourteen Points, the League was intended to be an international organization to promote peace and prevent future wars.
  • Despite Wilson’s efforts, the U.S. Senate ultimately rejected American membership in the League, a significant blow to Wilson’s vision. Opposition was led by figures like Senator Henry Cabot Lodge.

Postwar American Sentiment (1920s)

  • The mood in America during the 1920s was complex, marked by disillusionment with the war, a desire for a “return to normalcy,” and growing isolationist tendencies.
  • There were significant concerns over international entanglements, particularly Article X of the League of Nations Covenant, which opponents feared could commit the U.S. to military action without explicit congressional approval.

Notable Historical Figures

  • Emilio Aguinaldo: Filipino leader who fought for independence first against Spain and then against the United States.
  • Gifford Pinchot: Forester and politician, first Chief of the U.S. Forest Service, and a key figure in the Progressive Era conservation movement.
  • A. Mitchell Palmer: U.S. Attorney General (1919-1921) known for orchestrating the “Palmer Raids” during the First Red Scare.