Unification of Italy and Germany & 19th-Century Spain
Italian and German Unification (Mid-19th Century)
Until the mid-19th century, modern-day Italy and Germany were divided into numerous independent states. However, nationalist movements emerged in both regions during the first half of the 19th century. As a result of their efforts, these states were unified to form two new nation-states.
Italian Unification
The unification process, known as the Risorgimento, was initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859. After gaining support from France, King Victor Emmanuel II and his Prime Minister, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, successfully fought against Austria. As a result, the Austrians were expelled from Lombardy, a northern region of Italy. Subsequently, the Piedmontese conquered and annexed the rest of the Italian peninsula with the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
German Unification
Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, began the German unification process with a conflict with Denmark over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. After defeating Denmark in 1864, Prussia further increased its control and influence in northern Germany following the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
The Reign of Isabel II of Spain (1833-1868)
The reign of Isabel II marked the end of absolutism in Spain and the establishment of a liberal constitutional monarchy. Although the monarch had considerable power, this power was limited by the constitution. Isabel had to contend with two main political parties:
- The Moderate Party: Favored a stronger monarchy.
- The Progressive Party: Wanted to limit royal authority.
During Isabel’s reign, various new constitutions were proposed, and limited male suffrage was established. The military participated in politics, forming part of the government and staging revolts to acquire more power.
Political Problems
When Isabel reached the age of majority, she faced several political challenges. New political parties emerged, challenging the monarchy, including:
- The Democratic Party: Demanded universal manhood suffrage.
- The Republican Party: Wanted to establish a republic.
In addition, electoral fraud, including the manipulation of votes by successive governments, was a significant issue.
Economic Problems
To solve Spain’s economic problems, Isabel’s government expropriated lands from the nobility, the Church, and local governments in exchange for very small amounts of money. These lands were then sold to the highest bidder at public auctions. This helped to pay the state’s debts and also broke up many of the large agricultural estates, known as latifundios, into smaller, more productive farms. However, these expropriations had negative consequences for farmers:
- Small farmers did not have enough money to buy expropriated properties, so these lands were bought by wealthy members of the bourgeoisie.
- Many common lands were also sold. As a result, ordinary people could no longer collect wood from these lands or use them as pasture for their farm animals.
- Many religious institutions ceased to provide the poor with charity and assistance.
Finally, in 1868, there was a military uprising, and the Queen was forced into exile in France. This event marked the beginning of a new period in Spanish politics.
The Glorious Revolution and its Aftermath (1868-1874)
The Glorious Revolution was the first attempt to establish democracy in Spain. During this period, the Constitution of 1869 was approved. It was the most progressive Spanish constitution of the 19th century because it established universal manhood suffrage, as well as protecting other rights and freedoms.
The Democratic Monarchy
The Italian Amadeo of Savoy became King of Spain. However, he had to abdicate because both Republicans and Carlists rejected him. Moreover, the supporters of Alfonso (Isabel II’s son) were also opposed to him.
The First Republic
Spain had a republican government for the first time. However, the First Republic faced many problems, including demands for greater regional autonomy in Andalusia, Levante, and Catalonia. Republicans were divided among themselves, and the Third Carlist War had also broken out.