Understanding Workplace Dynamics and Employee Psychology
Workplace Values and Attitudes
Commitment Types (CAN)
Employee commitment can manifest in different ways:
- Continuance: Staying because leaving is too costly. Example: “I can’t afford to lose my benefits.”
- Affective: Staying because of emotional attachment. Example: “I love this company.”
- Normative: Staying out of obligation or a sense of duty. Example: “They trained me, I owe them.”
EVLN Model: Reactions to Dissatisfaction
The EVLN Model describes common employee reactions to workplace dissatisfaction:
- Exit: Quitting or leaving the organization.
- Voice: Speaking up about issues, attempting to improve conditions.
- Loyalty: Waiting passively and hoping things get better.
- Neglect: Reducing effort, showing less care, or increasing absenteeism.
Example: Conflict with a supervisor might lead you to complain (Voice) or stop trying (Neglect).
Employee Attitudes and Psychological Contracts
The Psychological Contract
An unwritten set of expectations between an employee and employer. A breach of this contract often feels like a betrayal.
Example: You were informally promised a promotion and never received it.
Core Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (E→P→O)
This theory posits that individuals are motivated to act when they believe:
- Effort (E) leads to Performance (P).
- Performance (P) leads to desired Outcomes (O).
Valence refers to how much an individual values the outcome.
Example: “If I work extra hours, I’ll do better, and I’ll get a bonus.”
Maslow’s Hierarchy vs. ERG Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
- Physiological
- Safety
- Belonging
- Esteem
- Self-Actualization
ERG Theory (Alderfer):
- Existence
- Relatedness
- Growth
A key distinction is that frustration can push you back down levels in ERG Theory, unlike Maslow’s more rigid hierarchy.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
This theory distinguishes between two types of factors influencing job satisfaction:
- Motivators: Factors like achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growth that cause satisfaction when present.
- Hygiene Factors: Factors like salary, company policies, working conditions, and supervision that cause dissatisfaction if missing or inadequate, but do not necessarily motivate when present.
Note: Fixing hygiene issues only prevents dissatisfaction; it doesn’t inherently motivate employees.
Motivation in Practice: Organizational Justice
Organizational Justice (DIPI)
Perceptions of fairness in the workplace significantly impact employee motivation and attitudes:
- Distributive Justice: Fairness of outcomes or resource allocation. Example: Equal bonuses for equal performance.
- Procedural Justice: Fairness of the processes used to determine outcomes. Example: Consistent promotion rules applied to all.
- Interactional Justice: Respectful and dignified treatment during interactions. Example: A manager explains decisions kindly.
- Informational Justice: Providing transparent and truthful explanations for decisions. Example: Explaining the reasons for layoffs clearly.
Leventhal’s Procedural Justice Criteria
For processes to be perceived as fair, they should adhere to these criteria:
- Consistency
- Unbiased decision-making
- Accurate information usage
- Appeal mechanism availability
- Ethical standards adherence
- Inclusive input from affected parties
Managing Workplace Stress
Burnout Signs (ECR)
Burnout is a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged or excessive stress. Key signs include:
- Emotional Exhaustion: Feeling drained and depleted of energy.
- Cynicism or Depersonalization: Developing a detached or uncaring attitude towards work and colleagues.
- Reduced Accomplishment: Experiencing a lower sense of effectiveness and achievement.
Example: “I just don’t care anymore” reflects reduced accomplishment and cynicism.
Stress Types: Challenge vs. Hindrance Stressors
- Challenge Stressor: Difficult demands that are perceived as opportunities for growth or achievement, potentially leading to positive outcomes. Example: A big presentation that can lead to a promotion.
- Hindrance Stressor: Obstacles that block goal attainment, often leading to negative emotions and reduced performance. Example: Excessive red tape or a confusing chain of command.
Groups and Teams in Organizations
This section covers fundamental concepts related to groups and teams:
- Definition of groups versus teams
- Types of teams: problem-solving, self-managed, cross-functional, virtual
- Team development stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning
- Norms and roles within teams
- Team cohesion and its impact
- Social loafing: reduced individual effort in a group
- Groupthink: impaired decision-making due to conformity
- Punctuated-equilibrium model of team development
Social Influence and Employee Socialization
Understanding how individuals are influenced and integrated into an organization:
- Social norms and conformity: compliance, identification, internalization
- Socialization stages: anticipatory, encounter, role management
- Realistic job previews (RJPs)
- Effective orientation programs
- Cialdini’s principles of influence: authority, commitment and consistency, liking, scarcity, social proof, reciprocity
Organizational Culture Dynamics
Exploring the shared values, beliefs, and practices within an organization:
- Organizational culture components: artifacts, espoused values, basic underlying assumptions
- Subculture and counterculture within organizations
- Culture dimensions: process vs. results focus, job vs. employee focus, open vs. closed systems, tight vs. loose control
- Cultural fit and its impact on performance
- Strategies for changing organizational culture
Leadership Styles and Effectiveness
Key theories and practices in organizational leadership:
- Trait, behavioral, and contingency perspectives on leadership
- Transactional versus transformational leadership approaches
- The “Four I’s” of transformational leadership: inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, idealized influence
- Emotional intelligence in leadership
- Outcomes and impact of effective leadership
Workplace Communication Essentials
Understanding the flow and effectiveness of communication in organizations:
- Communication process model: sender, message, channel, receiver, noise, feedback
- Media richness theory and its implications
- Channel expansion theory
- Common communication barriers: filtering, jargon, information overload, selective perception
- Nonverbal cues and their importance
- Active listening techniques: sensing, evaluating, responding
- Formal and informal communication channels