Understanding the Theories and Causes of Imperialism
Theory and Causes of Imperialism. The late nineteenth century in European politics introduced a new concept: imperialism. This term alluded to the formation, by the great European powers, of overseas empires in Asia, Oceania, and Africa. Little-known enclaves existed in parts of these continents, where commercial factories were controlled by the British, French, and Dutch. They traded with the natives and exported to Europe spices, silk, porcelain, ivory, and even slaves. Previously, since the XV century, great European empires had existed in America, belonging to a world that was pre-industrial and pre-liberal, largely disappearing in the early XIX century. The phenomenon of imperialism was the subject of study and polemics by some of its contemporaries, who put forward various theories to explain it.
Theories on Imperialism
- National Interest: Colonies were important from a military viewpoint. They were considered necessary for the development of the nation. Defenders: Some rulers, such as Disraeli in Britain and Ferry in France.
- Civilizing Mission: The mission of the white man was to offer the benefits of Western civilization to backward peoples. Moreover, it was to convert them to the true religion and submit them to the tutelage of a superior nation or state. The pioneer was mythologized and lifted by novels of adventure. Defenders: Religious and scientific adventurers, along with general public opinion.
- Social Groups: Certain social groups benefited from imperialism. According to this theory, imperialism was an instrument of the oligarchy; hence, the colonies were neither necessary nor desirable for developing countries. Defenders: Liberal Democrats and Social Democrats.
- Financial Needs: Imperialism was an essential stage in the evolution of capitalism and the result of global industrialization. Family businesses became outdated, and industrial capital had become financial. Free competition was replaced by a tendency towards monopoly, leading nations to seek markets worldwide. According to this theory, colonies were necessary for capitalist development. Defenders: Leftist theorists, such as Rosa Luxemburg, Nikolai Bukharin, and Lenin. The latter wrote in 1917 the work Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
The Causes of Imperialism
The imperialist phenomenon was made possible by the confluence of various causes:
- Economic Expansion: Capital export, overseas commerce, emigration, and personal initiative or group efforts. Expeditions were often carried out by adventurers, explorers, or missionaries. The interests that propelled these initiatives were diverse: scientific, economic, and even journalistic.
- Military Superiority: Technological superiority and scientific progress in military land and naval armament were decisive in extending European territories or subjecting ancient empires to defeat. Military superiority laid the foundation for administration and a communications network that enabled control over large Western areas. Scientific advances allowed settlers to use medicines.
- Power Rivalry: The competition among European powers further fueled imperialist ambitions.