Understanding the French Revolution and Napoleonic Period
The Impact of Enlightenment and American Revolution
The Enlightenment and the American Revolution gave the bourgeoisie new ideas to confront absolutism and the stratified estate system. They proposed new forms of social organization and government.
Social and Economic Crisis
In the late 18th century, the Third Estate aspired to profound social reforms. The peasants opposed the heavy taxes and rents imposed by the feudal lords. The bourgeoisie wanted to end the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy. They also wanted freedom of trade and to participate in political life.
Major Crises in 1789
Two major crises occurred in 1789:
The Economic Crisis
The rise in the price of food generated discontent and a spirit of rebellion among the people.
The Financial Crisis
To resolve this problem, Louis XVI’s ministers proposed that the privileged begin to pay taxes.
Phases of the Revolution
The revolution can be divided into phases:
The Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
This phase was driven by the bourgeoisie, who aspired to abolish the Ancien Régime, elect a parliament by selective suffrage, and establish a constitution.
The Social Republic (1792-1794)
The radical bourgeoisie, encouraged by the working classes, proclaimed the republic and began a transformation into a democratic and equal society.
The Conservative Republic (1794-1799)
The moderate bourgeoisie took power and implemented a new moderate liberalism.
The Social Republic
The Girondin Convention
The Girondins controlled the republic. A new assembly, the National Convention, was elected by universal male suffrage. In response to the king’s death, monarchies in Europe formed an absolutist coalition against France. Inside the country, counter-revolutionary revolts broke out, and the former privileged classes organized royalist plots.
The Jacobin Convention
The Jacobins represented the most radical sector of the bourgeoisie. A new constitution that recognized popular sovereignty and the right to social equality was enacted. The executive was led by a Committee of Public Safety, which gave power to the Jacobin leader Robespierre. To satisfy the demands of the sans-culottes, a series of social laws were introduced. Prices and salaries were controlled. Many people opposed the dictatorial government, and a coup ended the Jacobin government.
The Consulate
In 1799, Napoleon was named consul, and the Consulate began. This was a period of autocratic and authoritarian rule. Napoleon aspired to put an end to the political instability of the revolution. The constitution of the new political system did not include the separation of powers or a declaration of rights. The state was organized into departments. The public finance sector was reformed. Napoleon allowed exiles to return if they accepted the new government and signed an agreement with the church. A commercial code was established to stimulate the economy, and the Bank of France was created.
The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon began his conquest of Europe and was crowned emperor by the Pope. His large army and the use of new military tactics enabled him to defeat most European monarchies. The French invaded Spain, and Joseph Bonaparte was made king.
The Restoration of Absolutism
Congress of Vienna
After reinstating monarchs on their thrones, the four great powers reshaped the European map to their advantage but without considering the peoples and their nationalist aspirations. The Congress of Vienna established the ideological principles of the restoration. It also called for a balance of power between the victors through periodic meetings and the right of intervention.