Understanding the Edo and Meiji Periods in Japanese Buddhism

Posted on Dec 10, 2025 in Religion

Edo & Meiji Periods

1. What challenges does the Danka system pose for non-Buddhists, particularly Christians?

The Danka system (檀家制度), introduced during the Edo period (1600–1868) by the Tokugawa Shogunate, enforced compulsory affiliation of every household with a local Buddhist temple.
Its original purpose was to suppress Christianity (キリスト教), which the government viewed as a colonial and ideological threat from Europe.

Challenges faced by non-Buddhists, especially Christians:

• Every family had to register as a Buddhist parishioner (danka 檀家) and obtain a temple certificate (terauke 寺請証文) proving they were not Christian.
• Without the certificate, a person was treated as a potential Christian or traitor—resulting in interrogation, persecution, or execution.
• Christians were forced to renounce their faith publicly, often by stepping on images of Christ or Mary in the fumi-e (踏絵) test.
• It stripped people of religious freedom, using Buddhist institutions as state surveillance tools.
• Temples benefited financially through funerary and mandatory ritual payments, becoming politically powerful yet spiritually hollow.

The system’s misuse later caused deep resentment and contributed to the Haibutsu kishaku (廃仏毀釈 – Destroy Buddhism movement) in the Meiji era.

2. Explain the significance of the Non-Christian Certificate during the Edo Period. How did it impact religious practices?

The Non-Christian Certificate (寺請証文 Terauke Shōmon) was mandatory for all citizens, officially confirming that they were not followers of Christianity.
It served as a political and religious surveillance document under the Tokugawa regime.

Significance & impacts:

• Created a nationwide registration system centered on Buddhist temples.
• Turned Buddhist temples into agents of government control over the population.
• Individuals had to attend Buddhist ceremonies (e.g. Obon, funerals, ancestor memorials) to maintain certification.
• Financial burden: registration fees and mandatory donations.
• Reinforced “Funerary Buddhism” (葬式仏教) — Buddhism became associated mainly with death rituals rather than spiritual liberation.
• It ensured that Christianity and other “heretical” sects were eliminated, but it also corrupted Buddhist institutions, weakening spiritual practice.

3. Who are the “Hidden Christians,” and how did they adapt their practices to avoid persecution? Describe the case of Maria Kannon as an example.

After Christianity was banned and persecuted (from 1587), surviving Japanese Christians became known as the Hidden Christians (隠れキリシタン, Kakure Kirishitan).
They secretly maintained their faith for centuries under Buddhist disguise.

Methods of adaptation:

• Held secret worship in private homes or remote areas.
• Camouflaged Christian figures as Buddhist icons.
• Created statues such as Maria Kannon (マリア観音) — a statue resembling Kannon Bodhisattva (観音菩薩) but symbolizing the Virgin Mary.
• Blended Christian prayers with Buddhist-like chants, maintaining oral traditions.
• Used Buddhist structure and festivals as cover for secret masses and rites.

Significance:
Maria Kannon perfectly symbolizes this syncretism — preserving faith through external transformation.

4. Define “Shinbutsu bunri.” How did it affect the relationship between Shinto and Buddhism in Japan?

Shinbutsu bunri (神仏分離) means the separation of Shinto kami from Buddhist deities (Buddhas/Bodhisattvas), officially ordered in 1868, at the beginning of the Meiji Restoration.
Its legal form was the Kami and Buddhas Separation Order (神仏判然令, Shinbutsu Hanzenrei).

Effects:

• Canceled centuries-long Buddhist–Shinto syncretism (神仏習合).
• Destroyed mixed shrine-temple complexes (jingū-ji 神宮寺).
• Declared Buddhism a foreign religion and promoted Shinto as Japan’s native and imperial ideology.
• Triggered the violent Haibutsu kishaku (廃仏毀釈) campaign.
  • Thousands of Buddhist temples destroyed.
  • Artifacts, scriptures, and statues defaced or melted down.
• Monks were forced to secularize (could marry or eat meat) under the Nikujiku Saitai Law (1872).
• Buddhism almost vanished but later revived and reinterpreted in modern Japan.

Gautama Siddhartha

5. What are the Four Noble Truths, and why are they fundamental to Buddhist teachings?

The Four Noble Truths (Cattāri Ariya-Saccāni), taught by Gautama Buddha (Shakyamuni) after his enlightenment, form the core foundation of all Buddhist philosophy.

1. Dukkha (Suffering):
   Life is inherently unsatisfactory — filled with birth, aging, sickness, and death (shichinan hakku – “seven misfortunes and eight pains”).
2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering):
   Suffering comes from craving (tanhā), attachment, and ignorance — clinging to the illusion of permanence and self.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering):
   Liberation from suffering is possible through Nirvana, achieved by extinguishing attachment and ignorance.
4. Magga (Path):
   The Noble Eightfold Path provides ethical, mental, and wisdom disciplines to end suffering.

Significance:
The Four Noble Truths summarize the goal (liberation), cause (craving), solution (path), and hope (cessation) of the Buddhist journey.

6. What four sights did Gautama see outside the palace, and how did they shape his understanding of life?

The Four Sights (四門出遊) were the turning point for prince Siddhartha Gautama in his quest for enlightenment.

1. Old Age – Aging and decay are inevitable.
2. Sickness – Physical suffering is universal.
3. Death – Mortality cannot be escaped.
4. A Holy Ascetic – Seeking spiritual truth beyond worldly pleasures.

Impact:
These opened his eyes to the truth of impermanence, suffering, and the limits of luxury.
He renounced his princely life to seek liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) through meditation and self-realization.

Buddhist Texts and Philosophies

8. What are the Prajnaparamita Sutras, and what key teachings do they promote?

The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras (般若経 – “Perfection of Wisdom”) are foundational Mahāyāna scriptures written between 100 BCE–600 CE in India.
They emphasize wisdom (prajñā) as the highest perfection among the Six Pāramitās.

Key ideas:

• Śūnyatā (emptiness 空): All phenomena lack inherent existence (svabhāva).
• Anutpāda (unbornness): Nothing has independent origin; all things arise through dependent origination (緣起, pratītyasamutpāda).
• Enlightenment arises from understanding form is emptiness, emptiness is form (色即是空, 空即是色) — famously in the Heart Sutra (心経).
• Cultivating non-attachment and non-self (無我) unlocks ultimate liberation.

9. Explain the concept of Yogacara. How does it differ from other Buddhist schools?

Yogācāra (唯識, “Mind-Only” school), developed by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu (4th–5th century CE), teaches that the external world is a projection or manifestation of consciousness.

Core Concepts:

• Vijñapti-mātra: Everything is mere representation — reality arises from the mind.
• Ālaya-vijñāna (store consciousness): A ‘cosmic hard drive’ that stores karmic seeds shaping rebirth and perception.
• Trisvabhāva: Three natures — imagined, dependent, and perfected nature.

Differences:

• Unlike Madhyamaka’s focus on “emptiness,” Yogācāra emphasizes mind’s creative role.
• It leans toward idealism (similar to Western Kantian philosophy).
• It provides an explanation for karma and rebirth through unconscious mental mechanisms.

10. What is Madhyamika philosophy, and how does it approach the concept of emptiness?

Founded by Nāgārjuna (2nd century CE) in his text Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (中觀論), Madhyamaka (Middle Way) emphasizes Śūnyatā (emptiness) and Dependent Origination (緣起性空).

Principles:

• Everything exists only in dependence on other conditions — nothing has intrinsic essence (niḥsvabhāva-vāda).
• The Two Truths theory:
  • Conventional truth (saṁvṛti): Everyday reality exists dependently.
  • Ultimate truth (paramārtha): Everything is empty (no-self-nature).
• Avoids extremes of eternalism (“things truly exist”) and nihilism (“nothing exists”).
• Leads practitioners to non-dual understanding — transcending opposites such as self/other, good/bad, existence/void.

11. List and describe the Six Realms of Existence in Buddhist cosmology.

Buddhism teaches six realms (六道, rokudō) within the cycle of samsara (輪廻), representing both literal rebirth and symbolic mental states:

1. Deva Realm (天 – Gods): Blissful existence, but still temporary and subject to decline.
2. Asura Realm (阿修羅): Realm of demigods; characterized by jealousy, rivalry, and conflict.
3. Human Realm (人): Best realm for spiritual practice — balanced between suffering and pleasure.
4. Animal Realm (畜生): Driven by instinct and survival; ignorance dominates.
5. Hungry Ghost Realm (餓鬼): Constant craving; unfulfilled desire and attachment.
6. Hell Realm (地獄): Extreme suffering, anger, and hopelessness — but impermanent.

Goal: Transcend all six through enlightenment or rebirth in the Pure Land (極楽).

Buddha and Meditation Practices

12. Explain the three bodies of the Buddha (Trikaya). How do they influence the understanding of Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism?

The Trikāya (三身, sanjin) doctrine explains the three aspects of Buddhahood:

1. Nirmāṇakāya (應身 / Ōjin) – Manifest Body

• Physical expression that appears in our world as historical Buddhas (like Shakyamuni).
• Visible and accessible to all beings.

Sambhogakāya (報身 / Hōjin) – Reward Body

• Celestial or bliss body residing in pure lands (e.g., Amitābha or Medicine Buddha).
• Represents idealized compassion and wisdom for advanced beings.

Dharmakāya (法身 / Hosshin) – Truth Body

• Ultimate, formless essence of reality — Buddha-nature itself (e.g., Mahāvairocana).
• Universally present in all beings.

Significance:
Helps Mahāyāna Buddhism integrate abstract metaphysics (Dharmakāya), devotional worship (Sambhogakāya), and historical teaching (Nirmāṇakāya).

13. What is the difference between Rinzai and Soto Zen meditation practices? Which techniques are emphasized in each?

Zen (禅) meditation (Zazen 坐禅) has two major Japanese schools.

Both emphasize direct experience (kenshō 見性) beyond scriptures or words, but differ in method and tempo of realization.

Pure Land Buddhism

14. Differentiate between Jodo and Jodo Shinshu. How do their views on salvation differ?

Both seek rebirth in the Western Paradise (Sukhavati 極楽) to attain enlightenment there.

15. Who is Daruma, and what is his significance in Zen Buddhism?

Daruma (達磨, Bodhidharma) was an Indian (or Central Asian) monk, regarded as the 28th Indian and 1st Chinese patriarch of Zen (Chan) Buddhism (~5th–6th century CE).
He transmitted Dhyāna (meditation) practice from India to China, later forming Chan (Zen) Buddhism.

Significance:

• Stressed direct mind-to-mind transmission, beyond scriptures.
• Advocated Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra doctrine — “mind-only” and Buddha-nature inherent in all beings.
• Became a symbol of perseverance, reflected in the proverb “Nanakorobi yaoki” (七転八起) — Fall seven times, rise eight.
• His image (with open eyes, red robe) influenced Daruma dolls, symbols of determination and luck.
• Legend says he cut off his eyelids to remain awake in meditation; from them grew tea plants — linking Zen and tea culture.

16. What characteristics define the Pure Land of Sukhavati? How does one attain rebirth there?

Sukhāvatī (極楽浄土) is the Pure Land of Buddha Amitābha (Amida 阿弥陀仏) described in the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras.
It is a heavenly realm free from suffering, where beings can easily progress toward enlightenment.

Characteristics:

• Free of hunger, death, or pain.
• Lotus ponds, jeweled trees, celestial music — symbolic of purity.
• Inhabitants meet holy teachers and Buddhas easily.

How to attain rebirth there:

• Faith (shinjin) in Amitābha’s 48 vows.
• Nembutsu practice — reciting “Namo Amida Butsu” with sincerity.
• Focus on Other-Power (tariki) — Amida’s compassion leads beings to liberation.
• Anyone—saints or sinners, monks or lay—can be accepted through faith.

In summary:
From the Edo control of religion, the Meiji persecution and revival, to Mahayana philosophical growth and the refinement of Zen, Pure Land, and Shingon — Japanese Buddhism evolved through integration, suppression, and renewal, expressing the full spectrum from ritual to pure mind awareness.

Esoteric and Ritual Practices

17. Define esoteric Buddhism. How does it compare to other forms of Buddhism in terms of accessibility and practice?

Esoteric Buddhism (密教, Mikkyō), also called Vajrayāna, Tantrayāna, or Shingon, incorporates hidden rituals and cosmic visualization practices.
It developed from Indian Tantras (5–7th century CE) and was transmitted to Japan by Kūkai (空海).

Comparison:

Thus, esoteric means hidden and symbolic rather than openly textual.

18. Describe the main practices of Shingon Buddhism. How do these practices aim to achieve spiritual enlightenment?

Founded by Kūkai (774–835) after studying in Tang China, Shingon Buddhism (真言宗) means “True Word” (i.e., mantra).
It is a fully developed Vajrayāna system emphasizing ritual and visualization.

Major Practices:

1. Three Mysteries (三密 Sanmitsu):

• Body (身): gestures and mudras (手印).
• Speech (口): chanting mantras / dharanis (真言).
• Mind (意): visualization of deities and cosmic mandalas.
• Through uniting these three, practitioners realize their identity with Buddha Vairocana (Dainichi Nyorai 大日如来).

Ajikan Meditation (阿字観):

• Meditating on the Sanskrit “A” (阿) syllable, symbolizing the unborn nature of reality.
• Visualized on a moon disc (Gachirin) — merging mind with cosmic Buddha.

Mandala Visualization:

• Mandala of Two Realms (Ryōkai Mandara 両界曼荼羅):
  • Womb Realm (Taizōkai 胎蔵界) – principle of compassion.
  • Diamond Realm (Kongōkai 金剛界) – principle of wisdom.
• Represents the entirety of the cosmic Dharma universe.

Goal:
Union with the Buddha’s body, speech, and mind → realization of innate Buddhahood (sokushin jōbutsu 即身成仏).

19. What do the various ritual objects in Shingon Buddhism symbolize? Provide examples. (Bell and Vajra)

Ritual implements in Shingon ritual embody the unification of wisdom and method:

Other objects include five-colored ropes (representing five wisdoms), goma sticks, and mandala altars used to invoke deities.

20. What is Shingon Ajikan meditation, and what is its purpose? How does it facilitate spiritual development?

Ajikan (阿字観) — “Meditation on the Letter A” — is a central Shingon esoteric visualization practice.

Method:

1. Sit upright in meditation posture, concentrate on breathing.
2. Visualize the Sanskrit seed “A” (阿) written in Siddham script within a moon disc (Gachirin) on a lotus.
3. Contemplate “A = unbornness (anutpāda)”, symbolizing the original nature of Mahāvairocana (Dainichi Nyorai).
4. Merge the meditator’s consciousness with the Buddha’s compassion and wisdom.

Purpose:

• To realize the non-duality of self and cosmic Buddha.
• Refine the mind, harmonize body-speech-mind.
• Experience enlightenment within one’s lifetime (sokushin jōbutsu).
• Dissolve ego boundaries and awaken inherent Buddha-nature.

It represents the highest contemplative practice in Shingon, bridging philosophy, ritual, and mysticism.