Understanding Text Types, Discourse, and Communication Forms
Text and Speech Fundamentals
A text is the maximum unit of language and communication.
Discourse Markers and Connectors
Discourse markers, also known as extra-sentential connectors, link subsections of text and speech, establishing relationships between ideas. They typically belong to the class of adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, or phrases. The most common types include:
| Category | Function and Examples |
|---|---|
Additive Markers | They express a relation of addition (e.g., and, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, on the other hand, likewise, even, for that matter). |
Adversative/Contrastive Markers | They express contrast between two ideas and are linked to adversative and concessive conjunctions (e.g., but, however, nevertheless, in contrast, on the contrary, instead, yet, even so, while). |
Causal Markers | They express the logical relation of cause and consequence (e.g., therefore, consequently, as a result, so, thus, hence, then). |
Temporal Markers | They chronologically order events and actions (e.g., later, afterwards, meanwhile, immediately, instantly, at the same time, subsequently). |
Spatial Markers | They order objects and their parts in space (e.g., right, left, beside, in front, behind, under, above, next to). |
Discourse Organizers | They identify the different parts (e.g., introduction, body, conclusion) into which a text is structured (e.g., firstly, secondly, to begin with, in principle, then, next, finally, in conclusion). |
Reformulation Markers | They serve three basic functions: explanation (e.g., that is, in other words, namely), conclusion (e.g., in conclusion, in short, in summary, to sum up), or illustration (e.g., for example, for instance, specifically, to illustrate). |
Textual Typology and Linguistic Register
Texts can be classified based on various criteria:
Classification by Communicative Purpose
According to the author’s intent: informational, explanatory, persuasive, prescriptive, expressive, promotional, playful, aesthetic, didactic.
Classification by Language Level
According to the level of language used by the author: formal, standard, colloquial, vulgar.
Classification by Communication Formality
According to the formality or relationship between sender and receiver: formal, informal.
Classification by Channel
According to the channel: oral, written.
Classification by Linguistic Code Nature
According to the nature of the linguistic code: verbal, nonverbal (mimic-gestural, iconic, auditory), mixed.
Classification by Linguistic Code Structure
According to the structure of the linguistic code: descriptive, narrative, dialogic, expository, argumentative.
Classification by Social Interaction Field
According to the field of social interaction: academic, professional, workplace, political, institutional, judicial, parliamentary, economic-financial, family.
Oral vs. Written Texts
According to the physical means through which information is transmitted, texts can be oral or written. In oral texts, language is usually more expressive, spontaneous, and improvised, and therefore often less precise. Written texts, however, allow for forethought and subsequent correction, making their language more elaborate, precise, and explicit.
Types of Oral Texts
Oral text types include:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
Conference | A previously prepared speech in which a specialist discusses a topic of scientific or doctrinal character in-depth with the intention to inform or convince an audience knowledgeable about the subject. |
Colloquium | A communicative exchange that occurs after the presentation of a subject by an expert. A dialogue is established between the expert and the attendees to clarify questions or elaborate on concepts. |
Debate | An organized dialogue in which two or more people defend differing viewpoints on a controversial subject, with a moderator who regulates the participants’ statements. |
Roundtable Discussion | This is a discussion, in a conversational tone, among several people who present their ideas on one or more pre-established themes. Unlike a debate, opposing views are not necessarily emphasized; instead, ideas are often complementary or overlapping, and the moderator also participates. |
Conversation | A spontaneous and informal dialogue between various participants to exchange views on matters of interest or superficial topics of everyday life. |
The Art of Description
Description is a variety of discourse that verbally portrays a segment of reality, emphasizing its characteristic features.
Describable Elements
Both tangible and intangible elements can be properly described. When describing physical reality, the aim is to show the reader the qualities or properties of an object, place, or person.
Physical Realities
Objects
Landscapes (Natural, Urban)