Understanding Systems of Government and Political Dynamics
Systems of Government
Governments are classified into three types based on who rules: autocracy, oligarchy, and democracy.
- Autocracy: Rule by one person, such as a monarch or dictator.
- Oligarchy: Rule by a small group that gains power through wealth, military, or social position.
- Democracy: Rule by the people, which can be direct or representative.
This ancient classification no longer fully describes modern political life, as the same institutions can function very differently in different countries.
Constitutional Government
Constitutional government means power is controlled by a constitution and distributed among state organs that check each other. Political parties are key institutions because they link rulers and the ruled through free elections. While most constitutions were written in the 20th century, Britain and the US are exceptions:
- Britain: Has an unwritten parliamentary system.
- USA: Has a presidential system based on the separation of powers.
Constitutional democracy has failed in some countries, such as Weimar Germany. Furthermore, even in Britain and the US, the growth of executive power challenges the traditional balance of power.
Monarchy
Aristotle’s classification no longer describes modern political life because a king may be ceremonial or absolute depending on the country. In Europe, monarchies survived only where royal power was already limited before the 20th century. Powerful dynasties like the Romanovs lost their thrones because they refused to give up power. Today, in Britain and the Netherlands, the monarch is a symbolic head with no real authority; monarchy has become a dignified façade behind which parliament and parties govern. Outside Europe, most hereditary monarchies have fallen, and remaining kings rule as popular leaders or military chiefs.
Government, Ideas, and Public Policy
Government and public policy are influenced by ideas held at all levels of society, not just by famous thinkers. Ideologies exist ranging from sophisticated theories to simple slogans, including:
- Conservatism
- Socialism
- Liberalism
- Feminism
- Ecologism
These ideologies often have internal varieties and are associated with political parties, though the connection is complex, demonstrating the intricate relationship between political ideas and actual political behavior.
Political Parties
A political party is a group organized to win government power through elections or other means. Members share political preferences and a general ideological identity, typically labeled as:
- Left-wing: Committed to change through reform or economic transformation.
- Right-wing: Generally uphold the existing social order.
Political systems can be one-party, two-party, or multi-party depending on how parties compete for power.
British Political Parties
The main parties in the UK are the Conservative Party (right), Labour (left), and Liberal Democrats (centre). The Conservatives originated from the Tories, Labour was founded in 1900 by trade unions and socialist bodies, and the Liberal Democrats emerged from the Whigs. Smaller parties include the Greens, Scottish Nationalists, and Plaid Cymru.
Political Parties in the USA
The United States is effectively a two-party system, though parties are not mentioned in the Constitution. Since 1852, either a Democrat or a Republican has been in government. Both parties defend free enterprise capitalism, but Democrats tend to favour more government intervention. Voters elect the President, Congress, and governors on the same day, which explains why there is often a succession of Republican Presidents but Democratic majorities in Congress.
Democracy
Democracy comes from Greek, meaning “people’s rule.” Dictionaries define it as government where supreme power belongs to the people. Many thinkers have been critical of democracy:
- Aristotle: Called it government by the poor and unskilled.
- Hobbes: Called it an aristocracy of orators.
- Churchill: Stated democracy is the worst system except for all the others.
Ultimately, all the ills of democracy can be cured by more democracy.
The Home of Democracy
In practice, senior civil servants often act as the real rulers, as they have continuity and take long-term decisions, while politicians come and go. Politicians handle public relations, mingling with people and detecting changes in public mood. This highlights a contrast between management (solving problems and long-term realities) and politics (shelving problems and short-term appearances). In short, civil servants govern while politicians sell the image.
Diplomacy and the State
The First World War damaged the reputation of diplomacy and weakened the foreign ministry’s monopoly. Summit conferences became more common, shifting power from foreign ministries to presidents and prime ministers. Globalization has further transformed diplomacy, giving economic departments a new role in international negotiations. Embassies are no longer simple extensions of foreign ministries but houses for many different national operations. As globalization diminishes the traditional state, diplomacy is adapting and being transformed.
Revolutions
Revolutions are popular uprisings that overthrow a government and challenge the political order, economy, and social structure. Perspectives on revolution have evolved:
- Ancient Greece/Middle Ages: Seen as destructive.
- Milton: A right to protect society from tyrants.
- Kant: A natural step toward an ethical society.
- Marx: Based on class struggle.
The Russian Revolution changed Russian society and inspired communist movements worldwide. Governments can also be replaced by a coup, which is a forced removal by rivals from within the elite.