Understanding Social Movements: Theories and Dynamics
A social movement is a collective, organized effort to promote or resist change in society. Herbert Blumer defines it as “a collective enterprise seeking to establish a new order of life,” arising from unrest and driven by hopes for a better system.
Major Theories of Social Movements
Understanding why and how these movements emerge and function is explained through various theories:
1. Deprivation Theory
This theory suggests that social movements arise when people feel deprived of something they believe they deserve. Deprivation may be:
- Absolute deprivation – when basic needs are not met.
- Relative deprivation – when people perceive a gap between what they have and what they think they deserve.
Types of relative deprivation include:
- Decremental (loss of previous gains)
- Aspirational (desire for improvement)
- Moral (violation of fairness or justice)
Example: The Civil Rights Movement in the U.S. was driven by moral and relative deprivation.
2. Resource Mobilization Theory
This theory focuses on the resources necessary for a movement to succeed. It emphasizes:
- Funding
- Effective leadership
- Social networks
- Support from elites or other organizations
It argues that grievances alone are not enough — organized efforts and resource access are key. Example: The success of the feminist movement was due in part to effective leadership and institutional support.
3. Political Opportunity Theory
According to this theory, social movements succeed when political opportunities are favorable. It emphasizes:
- Political context
- State openness or vulnerability
- Alliances with elites
- Declining repression
Movements emerge when people believe that:
- Conditions are unjust
- Change is possible
- Collective action can lead to success
Example: The fall of authoritarian regimes during the Arab Spring illustrates how favorable political conditions can spur movements.
4. Leadership Theory
This theory highlights the role of different types of leaders:
- Charismatic leaders (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr.)
- Intellectual leaders (ideology builders)
- Managerial leaders (organizers and strategists)
Effective leadership is vital in articulating ideology, mobilizing followers, and sustaining momentum.
5. Framing Theory
This theory explores how movements construct meaning to gain support. It involves:
- Diagnosis: Identifying the problem
- Prognosis: Offering solutions
- Motivation: Inspiring action
Movements must align their values and narratives with public sentiment to resonate broadly. Example: Environmental movements use frames like “climate justice” to connect with human rights and sustainability concerns.
6. Multi-Factor Theory (Neil Smelser)
Smelser proposed a comprehensive model with six conditions for collective behavior:
- Structural conduciveness
- Structural strain
- Growth of generalized belief
- Precipitating factors
- Mobilization for action
- Operation of social control
This theory integrates various causes and conditions into a systematic explanation.
Conclusion on Social Movement Theories
Each theory of social movement provides a different lens to understand their emergence, development, and outcomes. While deprivation highlights motivation, resource mobilization and political opportunity emphasize organization and timing. Framing focuses on narrative and public appeal, while multi-factor theory integrates diverse elements. No single theory is sufficient alone — often, a combination provides the best explanation of complex social movements.
Frank and Fuentes’ Nine Theses on Social Movements
A.G. Frank and Marta Fuentes presented nine influential theses on social movements that challenge conventional views and offer a comprehensive, global perspective. Their analysis highlights the continuity, diversity, class composition, and transformative power of social movements. These theses are particularly useful in understanding both old and new social movements in a changing world.
1. Continuity of Social Movements
Social movements are not entirely new. While new social movements (NSMs) have some novel features, they share foundations with classical movements. Similarly, older movements may be historically recent and temporary. Insight: This challenges the idea that NSMs are completely separate or superior to classical ones.
2. Moral Motivation and Mobilization
Despite their diversity, all social movements involve individual moral outrage at perceived injustice, leading to collective mobilization for survival, identity, and empowerment. Example: Anti-globalization movements mobilize globally against inequality and exploitation.
3. Cyclical Nature of Movements
The strength and visibility of movements rise and fall in cycles, influenced by broader political, economic, and ideological conditions. When the conditions that give rise to movements change, movements may fade. Example: The resurgence of labor movements during times of economic crisis.
4. Class Composition Varies by Region
Social movements vary in their class base depending on geographic and political context:
- In the West: Predominantly middle-class-led.
- In the Global South: Often driven by popular or working classes.
- In the East: A mix of both.
Insight: This helps understand why movements take different forms across the world.
5. Autonomy Over State Power
Most movements do not seek state power directly. Instead, they aim for greater autonomy, transformation of values, and redefinition of power. Movements that become absorbed into state structures may lose their identity as social movements. Example: Environmental movements advocating for decentralization and grassroots democracy.
6. Agents of Social Transformation
Even when defensive or temporary, social movements play a crucial role in bringing about long-term social change. They often influence public policy, social norms, and institutional practices. Example: LGBTQ+ movements have significantly transformed cultural and legal frameworks.
7. “Delinking” from Capitalism and Socialism
Some movements aim to “delink” from global capitalism or transition toward alternative systems (e.g., socialism or participatory democracy). They question dominant economic models and promote systemic transformation. Insight: Movements are often incubators for alternative futures.
8. Coalitions and Conflicts
Movements may cooperate, overlap, or conflict with each other. Compatibility or rivalry depends on goals, ideologies, and constituencies. Example: Feminist and environmental movements may align on certain issues but differ in methods.
9. Self-Determined Agendas
Movements write their own scripts as they evolve. Outside interference, prescriptions, or imposed agendas are often irrelevant or even counterproductive. Movements must define their own strategies and priorities. Insight: Authentic change must come from within the movement, not external actors or institutions.
Conclusion on Frank and Fuentes’ Theses
The Nine Theses by Frank and Fuentes offer a rich, nuanced framework to understand social movements as dynamic, diverse, and context-sensitive entities. Their analysis moves beyond traditional Western frameworks by highlighting morality, class, global variation, and agency. These theses are valuable in analyzing both old and new movements, especially in the context of globalization and systemic crises.