Understanding Sentence Structure and Phrases in Grammar

Posted on Aug 31, 2024 in History

ITEM 2. Simple Sentence: Syntax and Functions

1. Sentence Structure

1.1 Syntactic Structure

A sentence consists of phrases that perform functions (subject, direct object, indirect object, etc.).

1.2 Semantic Structure (Meaning)

Formed by functions that refer to reality: agent, patient, object, beneficiary, etc.

1.3 The Phrase

It is the word or group of words that play a syntactic and semantic role in a sentence.

Simple phrases consist of a single word. E.g., eat.

Complex phrases usually consist of a nucleus and a few words that determine or complement it.

According to the grammatical category of the core, we distinguish the following phrases:

• Verbal Phrase: Its core is a verb and its function is the predicate.
• Nominal Phrase: Its core is a noun and it plays the function of the subject or object.
• Adjective Phrase: Its core is an adjective and functions as a complement of the noun (CN) or as a predicative attribute.
• Adverbial Phrase: Its core is an adverb and can complement a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a noun.
• Prepositional Phrase.

2. The Verb Phrase

It is the syntactic function that performs the predicate of the sentence and has as its nucleus a verb phrase or verbal periphrasis. It can be accompanied by various accessories.

2.1 The Direct Object (DO)

Syntactic function used to complete the meaning of transitive verbs.

Features:

• Function can be performed by: noun phrase, prepositional phrase, subordinate noun clause, pronouns, adjectives, nouns.
• DO with a preposition: It is a DO used exclusively for individual or personal beings.
• DO Test: The subject becomes the passive patient and can be substituted for unstressed pronouns (lo, la, los, and las).

Reflexive and Reciprocal Direct Object Accessories:

• Reflexive pronouns: me, te, se, nos, os, se. The action falls on oneself. Example: Mary washes herself.
• Reciprocal pronouns: nos, os. Mutual action. Example: Peter and Maria kiss each other.

To differentiate, we must resort to context or expressions such as likewise, one to the other, between themselves, each other…

Passivization:

Passivization is a procedure used to identify the direct object of a sentence.

Conversion of active to passive:

Active sentence: Subject + Verb + DO + Agent

Passive sentence: Subject + Verb + Agent + Patient (former DO)

2.2 The Indirect Object (IO)

Syntactic function used to express the person, animal, or thing that benefits or is harmed by the action of the verb.

Features:

• Function as IO: prepositional phrase, subordinate noun clause, pronoun, adjective, noun.
• Always introduced by the preposition “a”.
• IO Test: Can be replaced with unstressed pronouns le, les.

Reflexive and Reciprocal Indirect Object Accessories:

• It comes through a reflexive pronoun: me, te, se, nos, os, se. Example: Mary ties her shoes.
• Personal pronouns (nos, os) can also be indirect reciprocal function. Example: He and I send text messages to each other every day.

To differentiate, we must resort to context or expressions such as likewise, one to the other, between themselves, each other…

The Dative:

Unstressed pronouns are indirect complements (me, te, le, se, nos, os, les) that were sometimes used to express emphasis, interest, possession…

• Ethical Dative: Adds emphasis to the meaning of the sentence and agrees with the person and number of the verb. If removed, the emphasis is deleted, but its absence does not change the meaning. Example: He ate the whole cake himself.
• Dative of Interest: Indicate the proximity or possession of the speaker on some phrase of the sentence. In this case, dative pronouns do not agree with the verb. Its removal changes the meaning of the sentence. Example: The lamp fell on us (to show us that the lamp was ours).

2.3 The Complement of Regime (CR)

Completes the meaning of verbs that require the presence of a preposition to be constructed (complain about, dare to, beware of).

Features:

• CR Test: Always preceded by a preposition.
• Work as CR: Noun phrase, pronoun, prepositional phrase, subordinate noun clause, adjective, noun. All preceded by a preposition.

2.4 The Agent Complement (CAgent)

The agent complement is introduced by the prepositions “by” or “for”.

Appears with transitive verbs in the passive voice.

Features:

• CAgent Test: Active subject of the sentence.
• They work as CAgent: Prepositional phrase, subordinate noun clause.

2.5 The Adverbial Complement (CC)

It is a syntactic function expressing the time, manner, place, amount, company, instrument, etc. They can be adverbs or adverbial phrases.

Features:

• Work as CC: Noun phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase, subordinate adverbial clause.
• CC Test: Can be eliminated.

Circumstantial Adverbials:

They are called so because they support the substitution of an adverb.

Express circumstances of place, time, method, and amount. May be established as:

• With a preposition + noun phrase.
• Or by using adverbs.

Non-Circumstantial Adverbials:

The non-circumstantial adverbials cannot be replaced by adverbs, but by pronouns.

The non-circumstantial adverbials bring circumstantial information; they are the complements of: company (go out with friends), cause (do it for pity), purpose (save for the purchase of an apartment), beneficiary (bought a car for William), material (built of wood), means (sent by his son), instrument (operating with a scalpel), deprivation (did it without his recommendation).

2.6 The Attribute

The attribute is a syntactic function that applies to the subject (with whom it agrees) through a copula. It serves to identify the subject (Pepe is the director), to inform us of the class it belongs to (Pepe is a teacher), or to express a quality (Pepe is very funny).

Linking Verbs and Predicative Verbs:

• Linking verbs: be, being, and seeming.
• Predicative verbs: the rest.

It may be that the verbs be and be are constructed without an attribute. In these cases, they become predicative verbs.

Attribute Features:

• Work as an attribute: Noun phrase, prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, adjective phrase, infinitive, subordinate noun clause.
• The attribute agrees in gender and number with the core of the subject.
• Attribute Test: Replacement with “so”.

2.7 The Predicative

The predicative complements a predicative verb and a noun phrase that can function as a subject or direct object. E.g., The barking dog scared me.

Predicative Test: Agrees with the core noun in gender and number; it is switchable by “it” or “well”.

Subject Predicative:

• Appears only with predicative verbs.
• Your presence is not necessary in the sentence.
• There can be replaced by the neuter pronoun “it” (the attribute itself).
• When it is a predicative adjective, it can be replaced by the adverb “well”.

Direct Object Predicative:

• The noun complement is the direct object.
• The predicative is outside by replacing the direct object with an unstressed pronoun.

Prepositional Predicative:

With some verbs, the predicative is preceded by a preposition. These prepositional predicatives are characterized by:

• They can complement the subject or direct object.
• They agree in gender and number with the nucleus of the noun phrase.
• Can be replaced by neutral singular pronouns.

2.8 Sentence Complements

They do not affect only the core of the predicate, but the entire sentence. They are separated by pauses.

Topics:

They go at the beginning of the sentence and are separated from the rest by a pause (comma).

• Some express the point of view. Example: Scientifically, it is a mistake.
• Others may add value to the original meaning of cause, condition, or concession. Example: Injured, he did not play (cause).

Sentence Attributes (Evaluative Adverbs):

Indicate the speaker’s attitude to what is said in the sentence. Example: Fortunately (+), he has not come today.

Declarative Verb Complements:

Affect the verb “say,” which is present in all messages. Example: I honestly do not know anything (equivalent to: Frankly, I say, I know nothing).

2.9 Values of “Se”

• Reflexive and Reciprocal: The pronoun “se” can have a reflexive value (to oneself) (Mary washed herself) or reciprocal (mutually, each other) (Peter and Mary embrace each other). In both cases, it can function as a DO or IO.
• Dative Function: The pronoun “se” can be present in the sentence as an option: remove it, and there is no change in sentence structure.
• Pronominal Verbs: Are those that are conjugated with a reflexive pronoun. E.g., to complain.
• Be a substitute for a 3rd person pronoun or euphonious: When two unstressed 3rd person pronouns match, the first automatically becomes “se”.
• Impersonal Sentences in Passive and Reflexive:
  • If applied to an intransitive sentence or a sentence with a preposition that takes a direct object, the result is an impersonal sentence.
  • By applying it to a transitive sentence whose DO has no preposition, the subject is nullified, and the DO becomes the subject, resulting in passive reflexive sentences.
• “Middle” Se: The subject does not perform the process referenced by the verb, but experiences it. Example: The children go to sleep.

3. The Noun Phrase

It is a syntactic category that can have as a nucleus a noun, pronoun, or equivalent structure. Performs functions of subject, DO, IO, CR, etc.

3.1 Substantivized Phrases

They are phrases that do not have a noun as their core, but operate as noun phrases.

• Substantivized article. E.g., the difficult part.
• Substantivized metalinguistic use: Have the property of referring to themselves. Example: Mom has two syllables.

3.2 Determinants

Accompany the core of the noun phrase to restrict or reduce their significance.

3.3 Noun Complements

• Relational Noun Accessories: Noun phrase added to the core with a new significant feature (mobile phone, civil war) and form with it a linguistic unit in which we cannot introduce other complements (*modern mobile phone).
• Specified Noun Accessories: Restrict the class of the noun that functions as the core of the noun phrase and always precede them. E.g., the new computer, the computer of the boss.
• Nominal Qualifier Accessories: Bring a quality to the core of the noun phrase itself. E.g., intelligent answer.
• Nominal Apposition Accessories: These are nouns that modify the core of the noun phrase without the presence of a link. Example: King Juan Carlos, my neighbor, the dentist.

Apposition can be:

• Grading: E.g., Queen Dido.
• Specifying: Delimits. E.g., the Queen Mother.
• Explanatory: Example: Cervantes, a notable poet, came to the Court.
• Identifier: When a noun accompanied by an article or a determiner adjective that comes between pauses, helps us to identify someone. Example: Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote.

4. The Adjective Phrase

It is a syntactic category in which the nucleus appears as an adjective.

The structure of the adjective phrase consists of a core (adjective) and some adjectival complements.

Functions: Complement of the noun (CN), attribute, predicative.

5. The Adverbial Phrase

It is a syntactic category to which all constructions that have an adverb as their core belong.

The structure of the adverbial phrase is formed by a nucleus (adverb) and complements (adverbs or noun phrases with a preposition).

Functions: Adverbial complement (CC), complement of the adjective and adverb, sentence complement.