Understanding Political Theory: Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
Political Theory: England shifts the entire political approach of the time from the conception of power as divine right to thinking of it as a stream arising from something called contractual claims. These claims are neither the state nor power but are rooted in God’s fundamental invention, resulting from a hypothetical human pact. There are two thinkers of this trend: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Contractualism: In the 17th century, a number of events such as wars and religious conflicts made it difficult to justify the divine conception of power. This gave rise to a new social class, the bourgeoisie, which is a class that is gaining more and more power and seeks equality among people. In this context, the social contract theory posits that power and the state are the result of a contract between rational and conscious members of the community. These individuals are free and insecure, and they will have their rights protected by laws. Without authority, they will decide to create a state that they voluntarily submit to. The social contract is a hypothetical philosophical metaphor to explain the origin of both the state and conventional authority. Hobbes: A) Theory: Social Contract. His political theory involves a radical shift in perspective. Power is not of divine origin but comes from the will of the people. There is a new way of understanding humanity. We are all equal and not predetermined from birth. Everyone enjoys the same opportunities, even if they are different. No one’s capacity is determined by something concrete. This equality, along with human selfishness—according to Hobbes, all seek our own welfare and profit even at the expense of others—creates a lack of authority that makes life a living hell. Thus, we would all be a danger to everyone, leading to the theory of the social contract. 1) *The State of Nature:* The situation prior to the social contract. Humans lived in freedom and equality. No laws or authority existed; we all had the same rights, but in the absence of authority, individuals took away the rights of others due to selfishness. This state of nature would devolve into a state of war, preventing widespread and constant peace for any human. 2) *The Pact:* Human reason and the desire to live in peace led men to renounce freedom for a more secure life. They agreed that all power is given to a third party, which will become a sovereign that will protect them. Fear has driven humans to leave the state of nature and civilize. 3) *The State:* Also called Leviathan, it is the result of this agreement, where a sovereign or an assembly holds all power. Absolute power is unquestionable and can only be taken away when the state fails to guarantee security for its members. Hobbes defends his absolutism as the best way to live securely. B) Political Theory: Locke’s political theory is very close to that of Hobbes but is totally opposed regarding the defense of absolutism. Locke defends the idea that the origin of the state leads to individuals renouncing their rights, which justifies absolutism. Locke seeks to justify the legitimacy of certain personal rights, such as the right to subsistence and ownership. The state must guarantee those rights and is subject to the individual. C) The Covenant Process: 1) The state of nature: Human beings live in freedom and equality, but they have natural rights to livelihood, property, health, etc. Having rights does not mean they are respected because, in the state of nature, there is no force to guarantee them. 2) The Pact: With the intention of ensuring these natural rights, men settled their incorporation into society and created authority. They do not waive their rights; rather, they bestow power to protect them. 3) The Liberal State: From this agreement arises a state where power is not absolute but representative. The rulers are those to whom individuals give their freedom to protect their rights. When they fail to protect, that power can be reclaimed by canceling the pact through insurrection. D) Division of Powers: The clearest difference between Hobbes and Locke is that Hobbes’ social contract theory legitimizes absolute power, while Locke defends political liberalism. One of the key points according to Locke to avoid absolutism is the division of powers. The powers are divided into three types: 1) Legislative Power: This is the power to create laws, typically held by parliament. 2) Executive Power: The monarch enforces the law and sanctions those who fail to comply. 3) Federated Power: This involves the establishment of alliances and splits. Rousseau’s Social Contract: Rousseau believed it was impossible to return to the natural state but believed in the moral regeneration of man through the social contract. The agreement aims to harmonize the individual and society, legitimizing the social order while maintaining freedom. Through partnerships, individuals protect themselves and their property while maintaining their freedom. Men associate by covenant to make possible the general will, which accommodates each member as an invisible part of the whole. Justice is based on instinct and the social over the natural. If we obey and submit ourselves to the law enacted by the general will, then we are free. If historical man was depraved and selfish, he can recover and restore the civil part of happiness and freedom, even though he cannot return to his natural state. This state is the best state that has ever existed, and civilization is the best we can achieve. The general will has a universal subject, which is the sovereign people, and its object is the common good. The will of all is equal to the sum of individual wills. The general will is the will of citizens gathered in assembly, evaluating direct democracy rather than representative.