Understanding Our Planet and Health: A Comprehensive Guide

Posted on Aug 31, 2024 in Geology

Science

What is Science?

  1. Attempts to express reality by interpreting phenomena.
  2. Proposes hypotheses that can be contrasted.
  3. Uses language precisely and unambiguously.
  4. Bases conclusions on facts, observations, and experiences.
  5. Is critical, submitting proposals to comparison.
  6. Considers that its conclusions are positional and can be modified in the future.

The Universe

The universe is composed of millions of galaxies consisting of nebulae, stars, dark matter, and interstellar dust. Our solar system is located within the Milky Way galaxy and is composed of satellites, dwarf planets (like Pluto), the Sun, minor bodies (like comets), and inner and outer planets.

Asteroids

Asteroids are small, rocky bodies that orbit the Sun. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, a region located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Planets

Planets are celestial bodies that orbit a star. They are massive enough for their gravity to make them round and have cleared their orbital neighborhood of other objects.

Global Climate of the Earth

The Earth’s climate has undergone changes due to human activities, primarily the increase in greenhouse gas emissions. These changes are determined by the interaction of organisms, the lithosphere, solar radiation, ocean currents, winds, and the composition of the atmosphere, which creates a natural greenhouse effect. The impact of climate change includes rising temperatures, rising sea levels, prolonged periods of drought followed by flooding, loss of biodiversity, and the spread of tropical diseases. These impacts can be reduced through mitigation and adaptation efforts.

Living a Better Life

Living a healthy life, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is a state of complete physical and mental well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. This depends on lifestyle, genetic factors, and environmental factors. Health is threatened by infectious and non-infectious diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, whose risk factors include an unhealthy lifestyle. A healthy lifestyle includes not smoking, exercising regularly, and maintaining a balanced diet.

Criteria for a Balanced Diet

  1. Meet the energy needs of the individual, maintaining a balance between consumption and expenditure.
  2. Contain the proper proportions of the various energy substances.
  3. Provide an adequate protein supply.
  4. Meet vitamin needs.
  5. Include adequate amounts of minerals and water.
  6. Distribute daily food intake into 4 or 5 meals per day.
  7. Provide adequate amounts of fiber.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, including the different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms. This diversity is due to the adaptation of living things to their environments and their ability to move and find food.

Biological Evolution

Living organisms experience slow, gradual changes over time due to mutations. This process of evolution has shaped the diversity of life on Earth.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

  1. Loss of resources and ecosystem services.
  2. Increased vulnerability to environmental changes.
  3. Extinction of species.

Taxonomic Groups

Taxonomic groups are sets and subsets that classify living organisms based on shared characteristics that differentiate them from others.

Fossils

Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms. They are found in sedimentary rocks and provide evidence of past life on Earth.

The Origin of Primates

The human body shares many similarities with other living organisms, but our brains are what truly distinguish us. The origin of primates dates back to the beginning of the Tertiary period, approximately 60 million years ago. These early primates lived in trees and developed a keen sense of sight. The extinction of the dinosaurs allowed mammals, including primates, to flourish. These small primates evolved rapidly, leading to the emergence of prosimians and apes.

Characteristics of Primates

  1. Hands and feet with five toes.
  2. Plantigrade feet (walking on the soles of the feet).
  3. Opposable thumbs and toes.
  4. Finger flexion, divergence, and convergence capacity.
  5. Hand bones ever-present and discreet.
  6. Clavicles present.
  7. Flat nails.
  8. Color vision.
  9. Well-developed shoulder and elbow joints.
  10. Well-developed cerebral hemispheres.
  11. Binocular vision.
  12. Orbits surrounded by bone.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Gonorrhea

Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by a bacterium. It is spread through contact with the penis, vagina, mouth, anus, or from mother to child during birth. Individuals can be reinfected with gonorrhea. Condoms can reduce the risk of transmission.

Genital Herpes

Genital herpes is an STD caused by the herpes simplex virus type 1 or type 2. Symptoms usually appear within 2 weeks of infection and include blisters on or around the genitals. Outbreaks may occur for a year but become less intense over time. There is no cure for genital herpes, but antiviral medications can shorten and prevent outbreaks.

Chlamydia

Chlamydia is an STD that can be diagnosed through urine tests or swabs from the penis or cervix. It is treated with antibiotics and can be prevented by using condoms and getting regular checkups. Symptoms in women include burning during urination, unusual discharge, abdominal pain, back pain, nausea, and bleeding between periods. Symptoms in men include penile discharge and burning during urination.

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks the body’s immune system. When the immune system is weakened, the body becomes more susceptible to infections. HIV is transmitted through sexual fluids, infected blood, and from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms include fever, headache, swollen glands, fatigue, muscle aches, and sore throat.

Syphilis

Syphilis is an STD caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. Symptoms progress through stages, starting with a sore called a chancre. In the second stage, skin rashes and mucous membrane lesions appear. If left untreated, syphilis can affect organs such as the brain, nerves, or heart. Treatment involves one or more doses of penicillin.

Cardiovascular Diseases

Types of Cardiovascular Diseases

  1. Coronary heart disease: Disease of the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle.
  2. Cerebrovascular diseases: Diseases of the blood vessels supplying the brain.
  3. Peripheral artery diseases: Diseases of the blood vessels supplying the limbs.
  4. Rheumatic heart disease: Damage to the heart muscle and valves due to rheumatic fever.
  5. Congenital heart disease: Heart defects present at birth.
  6. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: Blood clots in the leg veins that can break off and travel to the heart and lungs.

Genetics

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. It is located in the nucleus of cells.

DNA Structure

DNA has a double helix structure, consisting of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other.

Human Genome

The human genome is the complete set of genetic information in a human cell.

Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to map and sequence the entire human genome.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes to alter its characteristics.

Drugs and Addiction

Drug Dependence

Drug dependence is a condition characterized by physical or psychological dependence on a drug.

Types of Dependence

  1. Physical dependence: The body’s need for a drug to function normally.
  2. Psychological dependence: The mental or emotional need for a drug.

Consequences of Drug Abuse

Social Consequences

  1. Increased risk of violent behavior and social marginalization.

Health Consequences

  1. Physical and appetite disorders, ulcers, insomnia, and fatigue.
  2. Psychological effects such as defensiveness, loss of self-esteem, and intense guilt.

Elements of Drug Addiction

  1. Intoxication: Physiological and psychological changes caused by drug use.
  2. Tolerance: The need to increase the dose of a drug to achieve the same effects.
  3. Withdrawal: Physical and mental reactions that occur when drug use is stopped or reduced.

Types of Drugs

  1. Depressants: Drugs that slow down the central nervous system.
  2. Stimulants: Drugs that speed up the central nervous system.
  3. Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception and can cause hallucinations.

Tobacco Addiction

Tobacco addiction is caused by nicotine, a highly addictive substance found in tobacco products.

Consequences of Smoking

  1. Dulling of senses.
  2. Yellowing and damage to teeth.
  3. Coughing.
  4. Yellowing of skin.
  5. Bad breath.
  6. Hair damage.
  7. Loss of sexual libido.
  8. Financial burden.
  9. Increased risk of death.

Transplants

What are Transplants?

Transplants are medical procedures that replace damaged organs, tissues, or cells with healthy ones.

Types of Transplants

  1. Autotransplantation: Donor and recipient are the same person.
  2. Allogeneic transplantation: Donor and recipient are of the same species but genetically different.
  3. Xenotransplantation: Donor and recipient are of different species.

Types of Donors

  1. Living donors: Individuals over 18 years old who donate an organ or tissue while alive.
  2. Deceased donors: Individuals who have died and donated their organs or tissues.

Rejection

Rejection occurs when the recipient’s immune system attacks the transplanted organ or tissue.

Types of Rejection

  1. Hyperacute rejection: Occurs within hours or minutes after transplantation.
  2. Acute rejection: Occurs within the first month after transplantation.
  3. Chronic rejection: Occurs months or years after transplantation.

Cloning

What is Cloning?

Cloning is the process of creating a genetically identical copy of an organism.

Stem Cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can develop into specialized cell types.

Types of Stem Cells

  1. Totipotent stem cells: Can develop into any cell type, including embryonic and extraembryonic tissues.
  2. Pluripotent stem cells: Can develop into any cell type in the body.
  3. Multipotent stem cells: Can develop into a limited range of cell types within a specific tissue.

Types of Cloning Methods

  1. Paracloning: Involves transferring the nucleus of an adult cell into an enucleated egg cell.
  2. Partitioning: Involves splitting an embryo in the early stages of development.
  3. True cloning: Involves transferring the nucleus of a cell from an individual into an enucleated egg or zygote.

Problems with Cloning

Social Problems

  1. Social rejection and ethical concerns.

Technical Problems

  1. The technique is relatively new and can be inefficient.

Nuclear Energy

What is Nuclear Energy?

Nuclear energy is energy released from the nucleus of an atom through nuclear fission or fusion.

Uranium Enrichment

Uranium enrichment is the process of increasing the concentration of uranium-235, the fissile isotope of uranium.

Operation of a Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power plants generate electricity by using nuclear fission to heat water and produce steam, which drives turbines connected to generators.

Benefits of Nuclear Power Plants

  1. Massive energy production.
  2. Reduced carbon dioxide emissions compared to fossil fuel power plants.
  3. Reduced consumption of fossil fuel reserves.
  4. Avoidance of air pollution associated with fossil fuel combustion.
  5. Potential for long-term energy supply.
  6. High energy density.
  7. Extensive safety measures.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants

  1. Risk of radiation leaks and accidents.
  2. Public concerns about safety and waste disposal.
  3. Long-term management of radioactive waste.
  4. High initial investment costs.

Sustainable Development

What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Principles of Sustainability

  1. Sustainable harvesting of resources.
  2. Sustainable discharge of waste.
  3. Sustainable emission of pollutants.
  4. Respect for the carrying capacity of ecosystems.
  5. Precautionary principle.
  6. Internalization of environmental costs.
  7. Equitable development.

Renewable Energy

What is Renewable Energy?

Renewable energy is energy derived from natural resources that are replenished over time, such as sunlight, wind, water, and geothermal heat.

Benefits of Renewable Energy

  1. Clean energy production with minimal greenhouse gas emissions.
  2. Sustainable and inexhaustible resources.
  3. Reduced reliance on fossil fuels.
  4. Contribution to scientific and technological advancements.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

  1. High initial investment costs.
  2. Intermittency of some renewable energy sources.
  3. Potential environmental impacts, such as land use and habitat disruption.
  4. Currently meets a small percentage of global energy demand.

Types of Renewable Energy

Hydropower

Hydropower harnesses the energy of moving water to generate electricity.

Advantages of Hydropower
  1. Renewable and clean energy source.
  2. No greenhouse gas emissions during operation.
  3. Domestic energy source.
Disadvantages of Hydropower
  1. Potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
  2. Water evaporation from reservoirs.

Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is derived from organic matter, such as wood, crops, and agricultural waste.

Types of Biomass
  1. Natural biomass: Occurs naturally without human intervention.
  2. Residual biomass: Waste generated from agricultural, forestry, and industrial activities.
Advantages of Biomass Energy
  1. Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions.
  2. Potential for economic growth in rural areas.
  3. Reduced reliance on fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
  1. Higher production costs compared to fossil fuels.
  2. Lower energy efficiency compared to fossil fuels.
  3. Seasonal production variations.

Solar Energy

Solar energy harnesses the energy of sunlight to generate electricity or heat.

Advantages of Solar Energy
  1. Renewable and sustainable energy source.
  2. Low maintenance requirements.
  3. Long lifespan of solar panels.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
  1. High initial investment costs.
  2. Intermittency due to weather conditions.

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy utilizes heat from the Earth’s interior to generate electricity or provide heating.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy
  1. Reduced reliance on foreign energy sources.
  2. Minimal waste production and lower environmental impact compared to fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
  1. Potential for water pollution.
  2. Thermal pollution.
  3. Limited geographical availability.

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy harnesses the energy of tides to generate electricity.

Advantages of Tidal Energy
  1. Renewable and clean energy source.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy
  1. High initial investment costs.
  2. Limited suitable locations.

Wind Energy

Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of wind to generate electricity.

Advantages of Wind Energy
  1. Renewable and clean energy source.
  2. Suitable for land unsuitable for other purposes.
  3. No greenhouse gas emissions during operation.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
  1. Requires large land areas.
  2. High initial investment costs.
  3. Potential impacts on birds and noise pollution.

The Water Cycle

The water cycle is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and rivers, forming clouds. Precipitation falls from clouds as rain or snow, replenishing water sources and supporting life on Earth.

Types of Water

  1. Freshwater: Water with low salt content.
  2. Surface water: Water found on the Earth’s surface, such as rivers and lakes.
  3. Groundwater: Water found beneath the Earth’s surface.
  4. Dead water: Water with high nutrient levels and low oxygen content.
  5. Spring water: Water that emerges from underground springs.
  6. Hot springs: Water heated by geothermal activity.
  7. Fossil water: Ancient groundwater trapped in underground aquifers.
  8. Drinking water: Water safe for human consumption.
  9. Sewage: Wastewater from households and businesses.
  10. Wastewater: Water that requires treatment before being released back into the environment.

Desalination Plants

Desalination plants remove salt and other impurities from seawater to produce freshwater.

Water Treatment

Water Treatment Process

  1. Pretreatment: Removal of large debris and grit.
  2. Primary treatment: Removal of solids and organic matter.
  3. Secondary treatment: Biological treatment to further remove organic matter.
  4. Disinfection: Removal of pathogens and bacteria.

Natural Hazards

What are Natural Hazards?

Natural hazards are naturally occurring events that pose a threat to human life and property.

Risk Assessment

Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability x Exposure

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are sudden movements of the Earth’s crust caused by the release of energy accumulated along fault lines.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are large waves generated by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea.

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust through which molten rock, ash, and gases are ejected.

Floods

Floods are overflows of water onto land that is normally dry, often caused by heavy rainfall or storm surges.