Understanding Intelligence: Theories, Research, and Testing
Key Definitions of Intelligence
a) Some theories treat intelligence as the ability to adapt that different individuals have, especially with regard to new situations. They also highlight versatility and adaptability as essential features of intelligence. b) Other views consider that being smart is knowing how to solve problems as efficiently as possible. In this way, originality and creative thinking are highlighted in the construction of intelligence. c) Some cognitive theories place greater emphasis on another aspect of intelligence: the role of reasoning and logical thinking.
The concept of intelligence encompasses a range of skills (learning, memory, storage of information) that allows humans to adapt to the world around them and solve their problems effectively.
Early Research: Social Darwinism
Darwin had demonstrated the validity of natural selection in animal species, noting that those individuals most able to adapt to the environment survive while those unfit will disappear. Intelligence was seen as the adaptability of humans to their environment. The fittest, the smartest, reached better adaptation than the unintelligent. This explained the intellectual differences between people, justifying the social order by arguing that the existence of the rich and powerful was not due to economic reasons or the exploitation of one class over another, but because their intelligence levels were substantially higher than those of the poor class. The same argument was used to justify the domination of the white race over others or of some countries over others.
Factor Theories of Intelligence
In 1927, Spearman issued his famous theory of intelligence, the two-factor theory. He stated that there is a general intelligence, called g, which is present in all intellectual processes performed by humans. In addition to general intelligence, there is another specific factor called s, responsible for the skill required to perform a particular task. The latter has a complementary role, with g being the most important factor. This research has continued to this day. Most specialists are notable for multifactorial theories, where intelligence is comprised of numerous skills sufficiently distinct and relatively independent. The first to propose a similar model was Thurstone. From data obtained in studies on many variables, he proposed the following factors of intelligence:
- Spatial aptitude
- Understanding of linguistic meanings
- Verbal fluency
- Speed of visual perception
- Capabilities of induction and deduction
Intelligence Tests
An intelligence test is designed to measure the skills, knowledge, and abilities of an individual. It consists of a set of common exercises or questions for all subjects, called items, whose function is determined by a numerical score of knowledge. Usually, the items are arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
Key Characteristics of Intelligence Tests
- Reliability: A test will be more accurate the better it eliminates factors due to chance (alterations in an individual due to nervousness, errors, etc.).
- Validity: A test should measure those factors for which it was developed. A test that measures emotions will not be valid for measuring intelligence.
- Internal Consistency: The test items must be related to each other.
- Stability: If a subject performs a test for the second time, their results should be the same or similar.