Understanding Attachment Theories and Their Impact on Relationships
Here’s your revised text with relevant theories and key concepts bolded for emphasis:
Attachment Theories
Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory suggests that attachment is innate and pre-programmed for human survival. Humans are born with the need to attach to their offspring. This need to form one main attachment is known as monotropy.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is a laboratory observation designed to measure the quality of attachment and differences in attachment styles in infants. Devised in 1970, it involved observing 100 middle-class infants from a US university nursery. Ainsworth concluded that the mother’s behavior towards her infant predicts the attachment type, calling this the Caregiver Sensitivity Hypothesis. The fact that the majority of infants in her study were securely attached seemed to support this hypothesis.
The Internal Working Model (IWM), developed by Bowlby, represents a child’s expectations from relationships based on early interactions with the primary caregiver. It acts as a blueprint for future relationships, influencing feelings of love, trust, and reliance on others.
The Continuity Hypothesis suggests that early attachment styles predict later relationship patterns. This impact ranges from childhood friendships to adult romantic relationships and parenting styles.
Types of Attachment
Based on the Strange Situation, Ainsworth identified different attachment types.
Secure Attachment (Type B) is the most common type globally, found in 66 to 70 percent of infants. Infants use the primary caregiver (PCG) as a safe base for exploration. They exhibit separation anxiety when the caregiver leaves and stranger anxiety in the presence of an unfamiliar person. They are quickly comforted upon reunion with the caregiver.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (Type A) is the second most common type, observed in 18 to 20 percent of infants. Infants are indifferent to the caregiver’s presence, exhibit no separation anxiety, and treat strangers similarly to the caregiver. They show little to no response upon the caregiver’s return.
Insecure-Resistant Attachment (Type C) is the least common type, identified in 10 to 12 percent of infants. Infants show reluctance to explore and prefer to stay close to the caregiver. They experience intense separation anxiety and avoid strangers. They display resistance and difficulty calming down upon the caregiver’s reunion, showing both a desire for comfort and resistance.
Cultural Variations in Attachment
Ainsworth’s study was critiqued for being ethnocentric and using only a U.S. sample. Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg conducted a meta-analysis of 32 Strange Situation studies from eight different countries to assess the cross-cultural applicability of Ainsworth’s classifications. Findings identified cultural differences in the distribution of attachment types. However, secure attachment (Type B) was generally the most prevalent across cultures. Notable variations were found in the prevalence of insecure-avoidant (Type A) and insecure-resistant (Type C) attachments between cultures. These findings suggest a universal aspect to the attachment process, while acknowledging that cultural practices influence attachment styles and behaviors.
Influence of Early Attachment on Later Relationships
Early attachment styles are suggested to predict later relationship patterns according to the Continuity Hypothesis. Secure attachment in infancy is associated with functional and healthy relationships later in life, leading individuals to seek and maintain positive interactions. Insecure-avoidant attachment can result in emotional distancing and difficulty in establishing close relationships. Insecure-resistant attachment can cause individuals to display controlling and argumentative behavior, hindering the formation of secure relationships.
Equity Theory
Equity Theory focuses on fairness in relationships, balancing rewards and costs fairly between partners. It addresses nuances of balance not fully covered by Social Exchange Theory (SET).
Equity is achieved when both partners benefit fairly.
Overbenefitting occurs when one gains more and may feel guilt.
Underbenefitting happens when one gains less and may feel resentment.
An individual’s perception of fairness impacts satisfaction, regardless of the actual benefit level. Equity involves a fair balance of contributions, not necessarily identical ones. Perceived inequity occurs when one partner feels they contribute more or incur greater costs. Relationship balance can shift over time. Perceptions of fairness can evolve with circumstances. The underbenefitted partner may try harder to restore balance or rationalize inequities to avoid dissatisfaction. Persistent imbalance can lead to relationship termination.
Parasocial Relationships (PR)
Parasocial relationships are one-sided emotional attachments to a person unaware of the individual’s existence, often a celebrity or public figure. According to Maltby et al., levels of parasocial relationships include:
Entertainment-social: a light, fun level focusing on celebrities for gossip and social interaction.
Intense-personal: deeper, more focused interest including frequent thoughts and daydreams.
Borderline-pathological: extreme level with obsessive behaviors and delusional thoughts.
The Absorption-Addiction Model describes the escalation of parasocial relationships into unhealthy obsession.
Absorption involves deep mental engagement and preoccupation with a celebrity.
Addiction refers to an increasing dependency on the celebrity for emotional fulfillment, leading to extreme behaviors.
Individuals at risk often display poor self-identity, distorted thinking, lack of personal satisfaction, and challenges in forming healthy relationships. The Attachment Theory explanation links early dysfunctional attachment styles, such as insecure-resistant or insecure-avoidant, to a higher propensity for forming parasocial relationships. These individuals may prefer parasocial connections because they avoid the risks and demands of close, personal relationships. Parasocial relationships offer a safe, controlled form of attachment that satisfies the need for connection without the vulnerability of real-life interactions. They also allow individuals to adapt the relationship to their needs, including switching obsessions.
Studies have supported these ideas. Greenwood and Long suggested that intense-personal relationships with TV characters reflect a deep psychological need for companionship. Their later study found that single participants and those with insecure attachment showed greater imagined intimacy with opposite-sex celebrities. Schmid and Klimmt found similar levels of parasocial relationships among Harry Potter fans in Germany and Mexico, suggesting that these relationships may be cross-cultural.
Research into parasocial relationships often uses self-report methods, which may be affected by social desirability bias. Investigating parasocial involvement can be potentially embarrassing for participants, raising ethical considerations about the disclosure of sensitive information.
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