Tsarist Russia & the Russian Revolution (1905-1921)
Tsarist Russia in the Early 20th Century
The Old Regime
In the early 20th century, Russia was under Tsar Nicholas II’s autocratic rule. Despite the existence of a Duma, its powers were severely limited. The economy remained largely agrarian, with 80% of the population being peasants.
Industrialization and Social Change
Late 19th-century industrialization, particularly in railway construction and heavy industry, led to the rise of a proletariat. However, the bourgeoisie remained small. Clandestine political parties emerged, opposing the Tsar:
- The Socialist Revolutionary Party: Believed peasants were the revolutionary force and advocated for land collectivization.
- The Constitutional Democratic Party: Sought to transform Russia into a constitutional monarchy.
- The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party: This Marxist party split into two factions:
- Mensheviks: Moderates who favored a liberal regime and gradual transition to socialism.
- Bolsheviks: Radicals led by Lenin, rejecting cooperation with the bourgeoisie and advocating for a proletarian dictatorship.
The Revolution of 1905
Russia’s expansion into Asia led to war with Japan. Defeat sparked widespread rioting and the 1905 Revolution. On Bloody Sunday (January 1905), crowds marching to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to demand better living conditions and political reform were violently suppressed. Soviets, or popular assemblies, emerged. The Tsar made concessions in the October Manifesto, including the election of a Duma via universal male suffrage. However, he failed to honor these commitments.
The February Revolution of 1917
Russia’s involvement in World War I resulted in military defeats and food shortages, fueling discontent and strikes. The February Revolution began with demonstrations in Petrograd. A general strike and military mutinies led to the formation of the Provisional Government under Kerensky, who aimed to establish a liberal political system. Nicholas II abdicated.
Rise of the Soviets
Soviets, with their own militias, formed across Russia and increasingly came under Bolshevik control, led by Lenin, who returned from exile advocating for Russia’s withdrawal from the war, land redistribution, worker control of factories, autonomy for nationalities, and Soviet rule.
Failure of the Provisional Government
Dual power existed between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. Popular discontent and military defeats led to a July uprising in Petrograd. The Bolsheviks were blamed, and Lenin returned to exile. In September, a conservative military coup attempt failed due to Bolshevik cooperation with the government.
The October Revolution of 1917
On October 24th, Lenin rejoined the Petrograd Soviet. The next day, Bolshevik-controlled Soviets seized key points in Petrograd, stormed the Winter Palace, and arrested the Provisional Government, marking the start of the October Revolution.
Bolshevik Rule
Under Lenin, the Bolshevik government withdrew from WWI, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Large estates were seized, land redistributed, factories placed under worker control, and nationalities granted sovereignty.
Civil War and Communism
Tsarists and supporters of a liberal system formed the White Army, fighting the Bolshevik Red Army in a civil war (1918-1921). Foreign powers fearing the spread of revolution supported the White Army, but the Bolsheviks prevailed. War communism was implemented to ensure supplies to cities and the war front. The Bolsheviks, now the Communist Party, held absolute power. Harsh political and economic measures led to suppressed strikes and revolts.
Impact of the Russian Revolution
Western liberals doubted the Soviet regime’s longevity, while Bolshevik sympathizers anticipated further socialist revolutions. The Spartacist revolt in Germany was one such unsuccessful attempt.