Tsarist Russia, Revolutions, USSR, WWI, and the Great Depression
Tsarist Russia
The Tsarist Russian Empire was immense, encompassing multiple nationalities. It was characterized by traditional agriculture, low industrialization, the absolute power of the Tsar, and the predominance of the aristocracy and landowning bourgeoisie. A scarce majority of the population lived in rural areas, and the proletariat had reduced power. The Orthodox Church held significant influence. Poverty and lack of freedoms fueled opposition to Tsarism from political, professional, and worker groups. This opposition culminated in the 1905 Revolution, with demands for a constituent assembly, better living conditions, and land reform. The Soviets emerged during this period. While the revolution resulted in the creation of the Duma, it did not bring about substantial changes.
The 1917 Revolutions
The February Revolution was a liberal revolution driven by factors such as Russia’s participation in World War I, military defeats, rising prices, poverty, and widespread political discontent. All opposition forces to Tsarism united. This resulted in the Tsar’s abdication, the formation of Kerensky’s provisional government, liberal reforms, elections, a constituent assembly, and Russia’s continued involvement in the war.
The October Revolution was a socialist revolution led by the Bolsheviks. It resulted in the Soviets seizing power, Lenin becoming president, the collectivization of property, the abolition of the army, the nationalization of banks, and the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The October Revolution triggered a Civil War between supporters of the Bolsheviks and Tsarism. This period saw the implementation of war communism and the ultimate triumph of the Red Army.
Construction of the USSR
The Lenin Era saw the creation of the USSR, with power concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Other political forces were marginalized and persecuted. The Third International was established, and the 1924 Constitution was adopted. A mixed economic system, the New Economic Policy (NEP), was implemented.
The Stalin Era was characterized by centralized power, a cult of personality, purges, political persecution, forced collectivization of agriculture (Kolkhoz and Sovkhoz), and rapid industrialization through five-year plans. This led to the growth of heavy industry but also shortages of consumer goods.
Consequences of World War I
Contending European Countries experienced high mortality rates, infrastructure destruction, reduced production, a decrease in trade, and significant war debts.
Losing Countries faced the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles, including war reparations and territorial amputations. This led to hyperinflation, currency depreciation, and the occupation of the Ruhr region.
The United States emerged with economic hegemony, surpassing the United Kingdom. American companies increased production and productivity, and the dollar became the dominant currency.
The Crisis of 1929
Causes included overproduction, credit inflation, profiteering, and a disconnect between industrial profits and stock prices.
Development: The New York Stock Exchange crashed, leading to a loss of liquidity and eroding investor confidence.
Consequences: Bank failures, reduced credit, and a decline in consumption.
The Great Depression
The stock market crash led to an accumulation of stocks, factory closures, increased unemployment, and decreased trade. Socially, poverty increased, along with inequality and social conflict. The crisis spread globally due to decreased production, rising unemployment, and the repatriation of American capital and investments.
Solutions to the Crisis
Keynesianism advocated for state intervention, including increased public spending and social assistance.
The United States implemented the New Deal, which involved economic regulation, public works projects, and support for the unemployed.
In Europe, different approaches were taken: Scandinavia adopted a welfare state model, Germany pursued autarky and rearmament, the United Kingdom prioritized trade with its colonies, and France implemented the Popular Front, focusing on public investment and social measures.