Tsarist Autocracy, Revolutions, and the Rise of Fascism
The Tsarist Autocracy at the Dawn of the 20th Century
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Tsarist empire was a vast country ruled by monarchical absolutism. Politically, Tsarism was an autocracy where the Tsar appointed a loyal bureaucracy and controlled a powerful army. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Party was founded, which later split in 1912 into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
The February Revolution and the Fall of Tsarism
The February Revolution of 1917 erupted in St. Petersburg, leading to the downfall of Tsarism. Soviets, councils of workers, farmers, and soldiers, demanded the Tsar’s withdrawal from the war and an end to the autocracy.
Civil War and the Creation of the USSR
The new Soviet government faced a civil war that lasted three years (1918-1921). In 1922, the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was created, a federal state uniting all nationalities of the old Tsarist empire. The USSR was ruled by a Parliament and a single party. The state and the party were fully identified, and institutions were not democratically elected.
The Struggle for Power After Lenin
Following the death of the undisputed leader of the Revolution, Lenin, in 1924, various party leaders clashed over proposals for the future. Trotsky advocated for exporting the revolution to other countries, while Stalin proposed building socialism in one country (the USSR).
Stalinism: Collectivization and Industrialization
Stalinism imposed a collectivized economy and society, leading to significant industrial growth and transforming the USSR into a major industrial power. Private property was prohibited, priority was given to heavy industry, and a state-run economy was instituted.
The Economic Consequences of World War I
The United States benefited greatly from World War I through the sale of food, weapons, and industrial products to the Allies. This allowed the country to accumulate half of the global gold reserves, and the dollar became a strong currency. By the end of the war, the United States had become the leading economic power, with high agricultural production and industry accounting for 44.8% of world production.
The Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression
Distrust spread among investors, and on October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday), a massive sell-off affected the New York Stock Exchange. The value of stocks collapsed, causing the stock market crash of 1929. Within a few years, the stock market crisis spread to industry, agriculture, and led to a widespread economic recession.
The New Deal: Fighting the Great Depression
In 1932, during one of the worst years of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt won the election and proposed the New Deal, a program to promote economic recovery and pull the country out of the crisis.
Post-War Italy: Economic and Social Challenges
The end of the Great War left Italy with severe human and economic consequences: 700,000 men had died, many industries were unusable, debt was very high, and inflation had increased.
The Rise of Fascism in Italy
Benito Mussolini created the fasci di combattimento in 1919. These were paramilitary groups intended to curb the rise of the labor movement by violently attacking workers and union leaders. The new party had the support of the petty bourgeoisie, with the tolerance of the Catholic Church and the monarch, Victor Emmanuel III.
The Establishment of the Fascist Dictatorship
Between 1922 and 1925, Mussolini implemented a process of restricting liberties and persecuting his opponents.
Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany
Adolf Hitler, a demobilized soldier of World War I who had not accepted the German defeat, founded the National Socialist Workers’ Party of Germany in 1920.
The Rise of Nazism to Power
The period between 1924 and 1929 saw improving economic conditions and some social stability. However, the consequences of the 1929 crisis were harsh in Germany.
The Nazi Dictatorship: Totalitarian Control
In 1934, within a few months, the Nazis transformed Germany into a dictatorship. Public administration was subject to a law authorizing dismissals for political and racial reasons. The judiciary was no longer independent and remained subject to the will of the party.