Translation Theory Essentials: From Linguistics to Literary Arts
Translation: Science, Art, or Both?
Core Concept: A Hybrid Activity
Translation is a hybrid activity. It involves both scientific methods and artistic interpretation. As a science, it relies on structured strategies, linguistic analysis, and accuracy. As an art, it requires creativity, intuition, and cultural sensitivity. This duality is at the core of modern translation theory and practice.
Translation as a Scientific Process
Translation as a science emerged from structural linguistics and the development of equivalence theory. This perspective views translation as a measurable and teachable process governed by predictable systems of meaning.
Key Features:
Emphasis on linguistic structure and formal accuracy.
Application of clearly defined strategies and methodologies.
Focus on source-text fidelity and the exact transfer of content.
Objective and reproducible decisions in translation.
Priority given to formal equivalence, especially in legal, technical, and scientific texts.
Important Frameworks:
Nida’s formal equivalence: aligns target language (TL) structure with the source language (SL) structure.
Holmes’s model: Translation Studies as a scientific discipline.
Descriptive Translation Studies (Toury): translation patterns observed empirically.
Example Analysis: “I followed a formal equivalence approach (Nida), preserving structure and meaning with minimal shifts, reflecting the scientific aspect of translation.”
Translation as an Artistic Endeavor
This approach sees translation as inherently creative and interpretive. It accounts for nuance, emotional tone, metaphorical language, and cultural specificity that cannot be mapped one-to-one across languages.
Key Features:
Emphasis on interpretive choices and cultural resonance.
Recognition of the translator’s subjectivity and visibility.
Focus on meaning, effect, style, and reader experience.
Priority given to dynamic equivalence and expressive fidelity.
Applied in literary, poetic, theatrical, and culturally rich texts.
Important Frameworks:
Nida’s dynamic equivalence: aims for equivalent impact on the TL reader.
Steiner’s hermeneutic motion: translation as a process of understanding and re-expressing meaning.
Venuti’s advocacy: foreignisation, preserving cultural difference rather than erasing it.
Example Analysis: “I prioritised dynamic equivalence to preserve the emotional impact and tone of the source text, following Steiner’s view of translation as an interpretive act.”
Key Theorists and Perspectives
Cicero / Jerome: Advocated for translating ideas and sense rather than words alone. Jerome applied sense-for-sense in secular texts, word-for-word in sacred contexts.
Dryden: Defined three methods — metaphrase (literal), paraphrase (balanced), imitation (free/creative).
Nida: Developed the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence. Emphasised the receptor’s response, especially in Bible translation.
Schleiermacher: Proposed two methods — foreignisation (bringing the reader to the author) and domestication (bringing the author to the reader).
Holmes: Established Translation Studies as an academic discipline, dividing it into pure (theory, description) and applied (training, tools).
Steiner: Described translation as a hermeneutic motion (trust, aggression, incorporation, restitution). Focused on interpretation and ethical engagement with the text.
Venuti: Criticised the translator’s invisibility; supported foreignisation as an ethical stance to resist cultural homogenisation.
Applying the Science-Art Duality in Analysis
If you translated literally or preserved form:
“I maintained close structural alignment with the source text, applying a formal equivalence strategy (Nida), appropriate for factual or expository texts.”
If you adapted for tone, fluency, or cultural meaning:
“To reflect the function of the source text, I applied a more dynamic strategy, aligning with the idea of translation as a creative and context-sensitive activity.”
If you did both:
“I balanced formal accuracy with cultural adaptation, demonstrating how translation functions simultaneously as a structured and artistic task.”
Conclusion: The Dual Nature of Translation
Translation is neither purely a science nor purely an art. Its dual nature requires the translator to apply structured linguistic strategies while also making interpretive decisions shaped by context, culture, and purpose. A balanced translator recognises when to prioritise structure and when to prioritise impact, depending on the skopos and nature of the text.
Linguistic Layers in Translation
Core Concept: Multilevel Translation
Translation operates at multiple linguistic levels simultaneously. To preserve both meaning and function, the translator must make decisions that account for structure, semantics, grammar, and contextual usage. These levels interact, and failure to consider one may cause misinterpretation or awkwardness in the target language (TL).
The Five Linguistic Layers
Word Level: Challenges and Strategies
This is the base unit of translation, but word-for-word translation is rarely adequate due to differences in morphology, lexicalisation, and cultural specificity.
Common Challenges:
Polysemy: one word, many meanings (e.g., ‘bank’ as financial institution or river edge).
Homonymy: same form, different meanings (e.g., ‘bat’ as animal or sports tool).
False friends: words that look similar but have different meanings (e.g., actual vs. actualmente).
Lexical gaps: terms that don’t exist in TL (e.g., sobremesa).
Culturally bound words: (e.g., tapas, GCSEs).
Mona Baker’s Types of Meaning:
Propositional: factual content of a word or phrase (e.g., ‘ballet’ is a dance, not a meal).
Expressive: the speaker’s attitude or emotion (e.g., ‘hell’ adds emotion).
Presupposed: implicit knowledge or expectations (e.g., ‘delicious’ → food).
Evoked: variation caused by dialect or register (e.g., ‘grandpa’ vs. ‘grandfather’).
Typical Solutions:
Generalisation or superordinate term (e.g., osprey → bird).
Paraphrase (explain meaning).
Loan or borrowing (e.g., sushi).
Calque (literal translation).
Omission (when no equivalent or not necessary).
Compensation (if meaning is moved elsewhere).
Example Analysis: “I applied a paraphrase strategy to solve a non-equivalence issue at word level, focusing on preserving the expressive meaning identified by Baker.”
Collocations, Idioms, and Fixed Expressions
These often cannot be translated literally without sounding unnatural or losing meaning. Collocations are words that frequently appear together (e.g., heavy rain, fast food), while idioms are fixed expressions whose meanings are not deducible from individual words (e.g., kick the bucket).
Challenges:
Many idioms are culture-specific.
Literal translation often leads to semantic or stylistic failure.
Idioms often carry emotional or stylistic weight.
Collocational mismatches (e.g., strong rain ❌ → heavy rain ✅).
Strategies:
Find a TL idiom of equivalent meaning (if exists).
Paraphrase the meaning.
Replace with a similar idiom in the TL.
Adapt culturally.
Avoid literal rendering unless functionally equivalent.
Omit and compensate elsewhere.
Example Analysis: “I used an idiomatic equivalent to retain both the function and tone of the original expression, aligning with a dynamic approach to collocational meaning.”
Grammar: Structural Adaptation
Grammar systems differ significantly between languages. Translators must adapt.
Common Issues:
Verb tenses may not match exactly.
Use of passive vs. active voice.
Modality (certainty, obligation) is expressed differently.
Word order affects emphasis and coherence.
Verb-noun shifts (e.g., ‘decide’ → ‘toma la decisión’).
Articles and prepositions.
Techniques:
Transposition: shift from one grammatical category to another (e.g., verb to noun: decide → toma de decisión).
Modulation: change perspective or semantics (e.g., not bad → bastante bien).
Reformulation: reorder to match TL syntax while preserving logic.
Example Analysis: “I used transposition to adapt the verb phrase into a nominal structure, ensuring fluency and natural grammar in the TL.”
Text Level: Cohesion and Coherence
A coherent translation must function as a complete, unified text — not just a sequence of translated sentences.
Cohesion:
Refers to surface features that link parts of the text:
Reference (he, it, this).
Ellipsis (omitting repeated elements).
Substitution.
Conjunctions (however, thus, etc.).
Coherence:
Refers to the underlying logic and flow:
Thematic progression (theme–rheme).
Chronological structure.
Cause–effect relationships.
Paragraphing and segmentation.
Example Analysis: “I reorganised clause order to preserve coherence and match the TL’s typical thematic structure.”
Pragmatics: Contextual Meaning
This level considers what speakers mean in context, beyond literal meaning.
Key Concepts:
Implicature: what is implied, not said.
Grice’s Maxims: quality, quantity, relevance, and manner.
Politeness strategies (e.g., indirectness, mitigation).
Speech acts (request, command, suggestion).
Register variation (formal, colloquial, technical).
Translation here must preserve the social, cultural, and interactive dimensions of language. For example, a formal refusal (“I’m afraid that’s not possible”) vs. an informal one (“No way”), or cultural politeness norms (e.g., indirectness in Spanish or Japanese).
Example Analysis: “I preserved the implicature of the original by maintaining the indirect request, consistent with Grice’s maxims of quantity and relevance.”
Conclusion
Translation requires navigating all five layers — lexical, collocational, grammatical, textual, and pragmatic. A problem at one level (such as an untranslatable idiom) may be resolved by applying a solution at another (like compensation at the pragmatic level). Skilled translators operate across these layers simultaneously, balancing clarity, naturalness, and fidelity in the TL.
Humanistic Texts: Purpose, Culture, and Loss
Core Concept: Intentional Communication
Humanistic texts include disciplines such as philosophy, history, politics, and the arts. These texts are context-sensitive, culturally embedded, and often highly expressive. Translation in this field is guided not only by linguistic transfer but by purpose, audience expectations, and cultural resonance. Therefore, it requires a functional, context-aware approach.
Translation as a Purposeful Activity (Skopos Theory)
This concept comes from Skopos Theory, developed by Hans Vermeer and Katharina Reiss. It argues that translation should be determined by its purpose (from the Greek skopos, “aim” or “goal”). This approach shifted focus from the source text (ST) to the target text (TT) and its function.
Core Ideas:
The function of the TT in its own cultural context determines translation strategies.
Translation is a communicative act with a goal (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain).
A “good” translation is one that achieves its intended function, not one that mimics the ST word-for-word.
Reiss’ Text Types and Functions:
Informative: content-focused (e.g., academic, scientific). Prioritises clarity and accuracy.
Expressive: form and style are key (e.g., literature, essays). Prioritises tone and stylistic effect.
Operative: designed to trigger action (e.g., ads, political speeches). Prioritises reader engagement and impact.
Example Analysis: “I adapted the text to suit the intended audience and communicative purpose, following the principles of Skopos Theory.”
Cultural Context in Translation
Translators are cultural mediators. Language carries implicit cultural references that may be unfamiliar or untranslatable in the target culture.
Two Main Strategies:
Domestication: adapt the source element to make it accessible (Schleiermacher: “bring the author to the reader”). Prioritises fluency and accessibility.
Foreignisation: preserve the source culture reference (Schleiermacher: “bring the reader to the author”). Prioritises authenticity and cultural awareness.
Choice of strategy depends on:
Target audience familiarity.
Purpose of the translation.
Degree of cultural specificity in the ST.
Example Analysis: “I chose a foreignising strategy to retain the cultural specificity of the source term, even at the cost of fluency.”
Cultural Transposition Strategies
A broader category involving a range of strategies to handle cultural references. From most source-oriented to most target-oriented:
Borrowing: Use the ST word without change (e.g., tapas, samurai).
Calque: Literal translation of a phrase (e.g., greenhouse effect → efecto invernadero).
Literal translation: Word-for-word when structures align.
Transposition: Change word class to fit TL grammar.
Modulation: Shift point of view or meaning.
Adaptation: Replace with a TL equivalent with the same function (e.g., Thanksgiving → Día de Acción de Gracias).
Explanatory translation: Provide the meaning within the text (e.g., A-levels → British end-of-school exams).
Example Analysis: “I used cultural transposition through adaptation to help the TL audience understand the concept without external references.”
Translation Loss and Compensation
It’s impossible to carry everything over — every translation involves some loss of meaning, tone, or effect. Translation loss refers to the inevitable gaps that occur when cultural or stylistic elements in the ST cannot be fully reproduced.
Types of Loss:
Lexical loss: A concept or term exists only in the SL.
Stylistic loss: Tone, rhythm, or register may not be replicable.
Cultural loss: References, humour.
Pragmatic loss: Implicit assumptions, irony, nuance, implicature.
Loss is often unavoidable in expressive texts (literary or philosophical), idiomatic or symbolic language, and culturally embedded metaphors or analogies.
Compensation is the strategy to make up for that loss somewhere else in the text. If something is lost in one part of the text, an equivalent effect is introduced elsewhere. Examples include loss of wordplay compensated by an added metaphor or alliteration, or lost tone/irony offset by adjusting syntax or lexis in another segment. Compensation preserves overall communicative effect, tone, and reader experience even if some details are altered or omitted.
Example Analysis: “To mitigate inevitable loss of stylistic nuance, I compensated by enhancing parallel structures and imagery in the surrounding text.”
Conclusion
Translating humanistic texts requires more than linguistic equivalence. The translator must consider the function of the text, the cultural gap between SL and TL, and the impact on the reader. Skopos Theory and cultural transfer strategies provide the framework to guide these decisions. The goal is not to reproduce every word, but to recreate the effect, intent, and context of the original message.
Word Level Translation: Problems and Strategies
Core Concept: Lexical Challenges
Word-level translation is the foundation of the translation process. However, translating individual words presents numerous challenges due to linguistic, semantic, and cultural differences between the source language (SL) and target language (TL). The goal is not simply to find equivalents but to preserve meaning, function, and naturalness within context.
Lexical Problems in Translation
Lexical Gaps
The TL may lack a direct equivalent for an SL term due to cultural or conceptual differences (e.g., sobremesa in Spanish).
Gaps may be technical (terminology), cultural (customs, institutions), or emotional (terms of endearment).
Polysemy and Homonymy
Polysemy: One word with multiple related meanings (e.g., “bank” as financial institution or river edge).
Homonymy: Same form but unrelated meanings (e.g., “bat” as animal or sports tool).
Context is essential to determine the appropriate meaning in translation.
False Friends
Words that look similar in SL and TL but have different meanings (e.g., “actual” in English vs. “actual” in Spanish).
These are frequent sources of error and require constant awareness and double-checking.
Denotative vs. Connotative Meaning
Denotation: Literal, objective meaning.
Connotation: Cultural or emotional associations.
A word-for-word translation may miss or distort connotative meaning (e.g., “home” vs. “house”).
Mona Baker’s Meaning Categories
Propositional Meaning: Logical sense or truth content of a statement.
Expressive Meaning: The speaker’s feelings or attitude conveyed by a word.
Presupposed Meaning: Information assumed by the use of a certain word or structure.
;>Evoked Meaning: Meaning that arises from cultural, social, or dialectal associations.
Understanding which meaning is primary in context helps guide translation choices and avoid misinterpretation.
Strategies for Word-Level Issues
Generalisation
Replacing a specific term with a more general one in the TL.
E.g., osprey → bird, GCSEs → high school exams.
Omission
Leaving out words that are untranslatable, redundant, or culturally irrelevant if they do not affect overall meaning.
E.g., honorifics, interjections, or culture-bound references without function in TL.
Cultural Substitution
Replacing a cultural reference with one familiar to the TL audience.
E.g., “FBI” → “Policía Nacional” in Spanish.
Paraphrasing
Rewriting a term or phrase to explain its meaning.
Used when there is no direct equivalent but the idea must be preserved.
Borrowing and Calque
Borrowing: Taking the original term unchanged (e.g., sushi, apartheid).
Calque: Literal translation of a compound term or expression (e.g., “skyscraper” → “rascacielos”).
Transposition and Modulation
Transposition: Changing grammatical category (e.g., verb to noun: to decide → toma de decisiones).
Modulation: Changing point of view, perspective, or semantics (e.g., “it’s not difficult” → “es fácil”).
Culturally Bound Terms
These include references to:
Institutions (e.g., NHS, GCSEs).
Food (e.g., tapas, bagel).
Social customs (e.g., siesta, potluck).
Religious terms (e.g., Hanukkah, Ramadan).
Strategies vary depending on context:
Maintain original term with explanation.
Use footnotes or glosses in literary/academic texts.
Replace with a functional TL equivalent if readability and fluency are essential.
Equivalence and Non-Equivalence
Equivalence is rarely one-to-one. One SL term may map to:
Multiple TL terms depending on context.
No equivalent at all.
A term with overlapping but not identical meanings.
The translator must assess:
Semantic range.
Functional role in the sentence.
Audience familiarity.
Text type and register.
Conclusion
Translating at the word level involves careful analysis of meaning, grammar, and cultural context. Literal equivalence is often insufficient, and translators must use a combination of strategies to resolve non-equivalence and ensure clarity and naturalness in the TL. Mastery of these approaches is essential to both technical and literary translation.
Literary Translation: Style, Subjectivity, Interpretation
Core Concept: Recreating Aesthetic Effects
Literary translation goes beyond conveying meaning — it aims to recreate the artistic, aesthetic, and emotional effects of the source text (ST). It is a highly interpretive activity that demands sensitivity to tone, voice, rhythm, ambiguity, figurative language, and cultural context. Because literary texts often contain dense symbolic content, stylistic nuance, and complex narrative structures, translation becomes a creative rewriting rather than a direct transfer.
Defining Literary Texts and Functions
Literary texts include:
Fiction (novels, short stories).
Poetry.
Drama.
Essays and other expressive prose.
These texts are primarily expressive in function (Reiss), and their key features include:
Subjectivity.
Figurative language.
Rhythm and stylistic patterning.
Narrative structure and tone.
Cultural and intertextual references.
Their form and content are often inseparable.
Example Analysis: “The ST functions primarily as an expressive text, prioritising aesthetic form and emotional tone over informational content. My translation sought to replicate that expressive function.”
Major Challenges in Literary Translation
Style and Voice
Style refers to the author’s unique use of language: syntax, rhythm, word choice, and punctuation.
Voice includes the narrative perspective and tone, often shaped by register and lexical decisions.
Translators must maintain consistency in the author’s tone and narrative rhythm without distorting meaning.
Figurative Language
Includes metaphors, similes, irony, symbolism, personification, and allusions. Often culturally specific or non-literal, requiring creative solutions.
Possible Strategies:
Keep the image literal if understandable.
Replace with an equivalent metaphor in TL culture.
Explain subtly through rephrasing.
Drop the image and convey the same effect another way.
Example Analysis: “I replaced the culturally embedded metaphor with a TL image of similar emotional intensity to retain its symbolic weight.”
Ambiguity
Literary texts often leave room for multiple interpretations (e.g., in poetry or stream-of-consciousness prose). The translator must decide whether to preserve ambiguity or clarify for readability.
Sound and Rhythm
Especially crucial in poetry, but also present in prose:
Rhyme, meter, assonance, alliteration, enjambment.
Syntactic rhythm and sentence length affect narrative pace.
Because formal properties may not be reproducible in the TL, translators often prioritise:
Overall mood.
Internal rhythm.
Stylistic effect over form (e.g., sacrificing rhyme to retain tone).
Example Analysis: “Although I lost the original rhyme scheme, I maintained internal rhythm through repeated consonant sounds and syntactic mirroring.”
Translation Loss and Compensation
Translation Loss
Inevitably occurs due to differences in structure, sound, and cultural background.
Common Losses Include:
Rhyme, meter, or sound effects.
Wordplay and idioms.
Cultural or literary references.
Emotional tone or ambiguity.
Compensation
Introduce a comparable effect elsewhere in the text.
Replace lost imagery with new imagery of similar impact.
Adjust syntactic rhythm to maintain aesthetic consistency.
Example Analysis: “I compensated for the loss of sound repetition by using parallel syntactic rhythm in the following stanza to retain the poetic effect.”
Poetry Translation
Poetry presents the highest concentration of challenges:
Dense imagery and symbolism.
Musicality and rhythm.
Highly condensed form.
Visual layout on the page (in some traditions).
Translation Approaches:
Semantic translation: prioritise meaning.
Creative/imitative translation: recreate function and poetic feel.
Literal + commentary: translation plus explanatory notes.
Philological translation: highly literal, often for academic use.
The Translator’s Role and Visibility
Subjectivity and Interpretation
Literary translators are interpreters. Their choices reflect a reading of the ST.
Multiple valid translations may exist, each shaped by a translator’s reading, cultural background, and target audience.
Visibility of the Translator
In literary texts, the translator’s presence is unavoidable.
Lawrence Venuti critiques the “invisibility” of translators, encouraging transparent and ethical translation choices, especially when dealing with postcolonial or marginalised voices.
Example Analysis: “My translation reflects a subjective interpretive stance, aligning with the concept of the translator as a visible co-creator.”
Foreignisation vs. Domestication
This applies strongly in literary texts.
Foreignisation: Preserve the ST’s cultural and linguistic traits to confront the reader with otherness. Aligns with ethical and political translation approaches (Venuti).
Domestication: Adapt the ST to TL norms and expectations. Makes the text more fluent and accessible but risks erasing cultural identity.
The choice depends on:
Publisher/audience expectations.
Ethical considerations.
Genre and literary style.
Example Analysis: “I opted for a slightly foreignising strategy to preserve the original’s poetic register and cultural density.”
Conclusion
Literary translation is a balance between fidelity and creativity, constraint and freedom. The translator must convey not just what the ST says, but how it says it. This involves interpreting style, preserving voice, and reconstructing the emotional, aesthetic, and cultural dimensions of the original text. Literary translation is therefore both a linguistic act and a literary creation in its own right.
Drama Translation: Orality, Performativity, Cultural Voice
Core Concept: Performance-Oriented Translation
Dramatic texts are written to be performed. This distinguishes drama translation from other literary genres. In addition to meaning and style, the translator must consider how the text sounds when spoken, how it functions on stage, and how it interacts with the audience. Translation decisions are shaped by performability, rhythm, register, characterisation, and cultural context.
Defining Features of Drama
Orality: Dialogue is designed to be spoken aloud.
Performativity: The text is incomplete without performance — intonation, gesture, timing, and space all contribute to meaning.
Economy: Dialogue is often short, elliptical, and dense in meaning.
Character Voice: Social identity, class, and emotion are expressed through speech.
Stage Directions: Instructions for actors’ movements, gestures, and tone that must also be translated with awareness of performance.
Drama, unlike narrative prose, relies on rhythm, naturalness, and communicative function.
Example Analysis: “My translation prioritised the performability of the dialogue, ensuring that rhythm and intonation would sound natural when spoken aloud.”
Performativity and Orality
This means the text must function when performed.
Performability: The translated lines must be actable and speakable. This requires attention to rhythm, breath groups, timing, and interaction.
Intonation, stress, and pause can shape or alter meaning.
Ellipsis, interruption, and informal speech are common and must sound natural in the target language (TL).
Challenge: Literal translations often sound artificial on stage.
Example Analysis: “I adjusted word order to enhance performative rhythm and clarity for oral delivery.”
Sociolinguistic Variation
Characters often signal their identity through dialect, sociolect, or accent.
Dialect: regional forms (e.g., Irish English in Joyce).
Sociolect: speech linked to social class (e.g., informal register, slang, swearing).
Register: formal, informal, colloquial, vulgar.
Preserving these distinctions in the TL is essential for characterisation, social relationships, and audience understanding.
Strategies:
Imitate variation using TL equivalents (e.g., replace an Irish rural dialect with a regional rural dialect in Spanish).
Use vocabulary, syntax, or grammar to signal social status or class.
Avoid caricature or distortion when adapting dialects.
Example Analysis: “I couldn’t preserve the North Irish accent in Spanish, so I marked social identity through word choice, rhythm, and lexical variation.”
Cultural Specificity and Referentiality
Drama may contain:
Culture-specific institutions, rituals, names, or idioms.
Humour and irony based on social context or wordplay.
Political or historical references tied to a specific time and place.
Adaptation is often required:
Replace untranslatable cultural items with TL equivalents.
Retain and explain if cultural specificity is important to the play’s theme.
Avoid over-domestication in politically or ethically charged texts.
Example Analysis: “I preserved the dramatic irony by using a TL equivalent that allowed the audience to ‘hear’ the double meaning.”
Stage Directions and Paratext
Stage directions provide crucial non-verbal information. They must be translated in a way that is usable by actors and directors. Formal, poetic, or symbolic directions should retain their tone and function. Stage directions may also reflect authorial voice or symbolic meaning and are not purely technical.
Example Analysis: “I preserved the tone of the stage direction to reflect the character’s physical state and its impact on the dramatic moment.”
Challenges Unique to Drama Translation
Limited information: The play is often dialogue-heavy with minimal narration.
Multi-functionality: Dialogue must convey plot, emotion, subtext, and cultural context simultaneously.
Timing and pacing: Line length, rhythm, and interaction must be preserved for stage performance.
Audience reception: Cultural references, jokes, or allusions must land with the TL audience.
Example Analysis: “I adapted the sentence breaks to maintain the pacing required for dramatic tension while preserving the character’s emotional state.”
Foreignisation vs. Domestication in Drama
Foreignisation: May preserve cultural markers, social structures, and authenticity of the original culture.
Domestication: May enhance naturalness and performability but risks diluting the cultural setting.
In theatre, the choice is often determined by:
The goal of the production (localised vs. authentic).
The audience’s familiarity with the ST culture.
Director or publisher preferences.
Functionalism and Skopos in Drama Translation
Translation choices should align with the intended function of the TT: reading? performance? study?
Functionalism emphasises that choices are goal-oriented: natural delivery for performance vs. fidelity for scholarly study.
Example Analysis: “Since the translation is intended for performance, I focused on clarity and rhythm over structural fidelity.”
Conclusion
Drama translation is a complex, multi-dimensional task. It demands sensitivity to spoken language, performative rhythm, social identity, and cultural resonance. A successful dramatic translation balances fidelity to the source text with the functional demands of theatre. It must be both accurate and speakable, faithful and flexible, preserving the original’s artistic intent while making it work for actors and audiences in a new language and cultural setting.