Transformative Eras: Industrial and Economic Shifts
The Industrial Revolution: An Era of Transformation
Between 1700 and 1800, we witnessed a profound revolution across many areas of society. This transformative process began in Britain in the 18th century and subsequently spread to other parts of the world. Although used earlier by French writers, the term “Industrial Revolution” was first popularized by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee (1852–83) to describe Britain’s economic development from 1760 to 1840.
The Agricultural Revolution: Innovations in Farming
The Agricultural Revolution brought significant changes to farming practices:
- Privatization of Common Lands: Common lands became private property.
- Farming for Profit: People began to view farming as a business rather than solely a method to feed their families.
- New Breeds: Animals were now raised specifically for meat and better wool production.
- New Crops and Technologies:
- Manure was mixed with soil to improve fertility.
- The seed drill was introduced, making planting less wasteful and ensuring seeds were planted deeper.
- Four-Year Crop Cycle: A rotational system was adopted (1st year: turnips, 2nd year: barley, 3rd year: grasses, 4th year: wheat, then back to the start). This crop rotation provided various nutrients to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops.
Laissez-faire: Economic Non-Intervention
Laissez-faire, meaning “Let (people) do (as they choose),” describes an economic system or viewpoint that opposes regulation or interference by the government in economic affairs. This philosophy advocates for minimal government intervention, allowing the free enterprise system to operate according to its own laws.
Market Economy vs. Command Economy
Understanding the differences between economic systems is crucial:
- Market Economy: Economic activity is largely unplanned by a central authority. Instead, it is determined by the forces of supply and demand for goods and services.
- Command Economy: Economic activity is organized and directed by government officials who also own and control the factors of production.
Labor Conditions and Exploitation
During this period, workers often faced unsteady wages and lacked oversight from authorities. This environment frequently led to low pay and mistreatment by companies, which prioritized maximizing profit over worker welfare.
Economic Revolution: Social and Urban Changes
The industrial and economic developments of the Industrial Revolution brought significant social changes. Industrialization resulted in a substantial increase in population and the phenomenon of urbanization, as a growing number of people moved to urban centers in search of employment.
Understanding Supply and Demand
Supply and demand refers to the amount of a commodity, product, or service available and the desire of buyers for it, considered as key factors regulating its price.
- Supply Increases, Demand Decreases: Leads to lower prices.
- Supply Decreases, Demand Increases: Leads to higher prices.
Mechanization and the Factory System
The rise of mechanization marked the decline of the Cottage Industry. A cottage industry is a small-scale, home-based production system, contrasting sharply with the new factory-based methods.
New inventions and the factory system required two primary resources:
- Space: Primarily large factory spaces.
- Energy Source:
- Water or steam (often requiring proximity to a water source).
- Coal (requiring proximity to transportation routes).
Innovations in Transportation
The Industrial Revolution spurred significant advancements in transportation:
- New systems for road construction emerged, similar to modern-day roads.
- Railroad accessibility greatly increased.
- New and improved steam engines and locomotives revolutionized travel and freight.
- These advancements also contributed to people living closer together, at least more so than in previous eras.
Access to Raw Materials
The burgeoning industries required vast amounts of raw materials. While coal was sourced from Britain, many other essential resources came from its numerous colonies. Britain’s status as a superpower with colonies around the world provided it with unparalleled access to these vital materials.
Labor Supply and Working Conditions
Child Labor
Children constituted a significant portion of the labor force, primarily from poor families where every member, including children, had to work. Children were considered useful workers due to their small size, allowing them to:
- Climb into large machinery in textile factories.
- Fit into small shafts in coal mines.
- Clean narrow chimneys.
Women in the Workforce
Many women increasingly worked outside the home, taking on jobs in agriculture and factory settings. While this often meant poor wages and harsh working conditions, it also allowed women to earn their own income, a significant social change.