Transformaciones de la Edad Moderna: Exploración, Reforma y Colonización

Posted on Jun 20, 2025 in Arts and Humanities

El Descubrimiento y la Conquista de América

Descubrimientos Portugueses

  • En el siglo XV, Portugal era la mayor potencia en términos de descubrimientos geográficos.
  • Los portugueses establecieron puestos comerciales en la costa africana para obtener esclavos, marfil y oro.
  • Esta exploración fue apoyada por Enrique el Navegante, quien fundó una escuela de navegantes y cartógrafos.

El Plan de Cristóbal Colón

  1. La llegada de los europeos a las Américas está asociada a Cristóbal Colón, un marinero experimentado que recorrió las rutas africanas establecidas por Portugal y pasó un tiempo en el Golfo de Guinea, donde se familiarizó con los vientos alisios.
  2. También estaba familiarizado con las teorías de Toscanelli, un geógrafo italiano que creía que la Tierra era esférica.
  3. Su plan consistía en ir a Asia navegando hacia el oeste, evitando así África.
  4. Primero explicó su plan al rey Juan II de Portugal en 1482, pero fue rechazado.
  5. Entonces Colón viajó a Castilla para explicar su plan a los Reyes Católicos en 1486, pero habían comenzado la guerra contra el reino de Granada cuatro años antes y le dijeron que la pospusiera.
  6. Una vez caída Granada en enero de 1492, los Reyes Católicos firmaron las Capitulaciones de Santa Fe: un documento en el que los monarcas se comprometían a apoyar la misión de Colón, concediéndole los títulos de almirante y virrey de las tierras que descubriera, así como la décima parte de los beneficios obtenidos de la explotación de sus riquezas.

Cristóbal Colón partió de Palos (Huelva) el 3 de agosto de 1492 con tres carabelas: la Pinta, la Niña y la Santa María. Llegaron a las Bahamas el 12 de octubre de 1492. Al cabo de tres meses viajó de vuelta a la Península Ibérica, convencido de que había llegado a la costa de Asia, por eso llamó a estas tierras las Antillas. Colón hizo tres viajes en total.

Los Reyes Católicos quisieron legitimar su derecho a ocupar los territorios descubiertos, pero Portugal se opuso. Para encontrar una solución entre los dos países, firmaron el Tratado de Tordesillas: establecía una línea dividiendo el planeta en dos áreas de influencia, todas las tierras al oeste de la línea pertenecían a Castilla, y todas las tierras al este eran para Portugal.

La Conquista y Colonización de América

La Conquista

  • Una vez descubierta y explorada la costa americana, comenzó la conquista de las zonas interiores del continente.
  • La justificación de los españoles para la conquista fue que necesitaban convertir a los habitantes indígenas al cristianismo.
  • Los pueblos indígenas se negaron a renunciar a sus costumbres y, por lo tanto, fueron reprimidos. Los grandes imperios aztecas, mayas e incas fueron conquistados por pequeños grupos de conquistadores.

Gobierno y Economía Colonial

  • Los territorios americanos conquistados pasaron a formar parte de la Corona de Castilla.
  • Se crearon encomiendas en las zonas agrícolas. Era un sistema político-económico en el que la tierra se compartía entre varios colonos. Cada uno supervisaba a los habitantes indígenas, que tenían que trabajar la tierra a cambio de comida y protección.

Crisis Demográfica y Malestar Social

  • Se estima que en algunas regiones, como el Caribe, murieron más de tres cuartas partes de la población indígena. Esto se debió principalmente a enfermedades transmitidas por los europeos.
  • El abuso de los colonos hacia los nativos también condujo a altas tasas de mortalidad, así como a revueltas indígenas. El duro trato que daban a los nativos fue criticado por misioneros como Fray Bartolomé de las Casas.
  • A raíz de estas protestas, la Corona introdujo las Leyes de Burgos (1512), aboliendo el sistema de encomienda.
  • También se prohibió la esclavitud de los nativos; sin embargo, los colonos no contaban con la mano de obra que necesitaban, por lo que comenzaron a importar esclavos de África.

The Protestant Reformation

Religious Climate in Early Modern Age

At the beginning of the Early Modern Age, many people believed that the Catholic Church was failing to adapt to the times:

  • Humanism promoted individual interpretation of the Bible.
  • With the development of Authoritarian Monarchies, monarchs had more control over the Church, weakening the authority of the Pope.
  • In addition, indulgences were sold and bought. This meant that sins could be pardoned in exchange for money given to the Church. This was criticized by priests and humanists.

There were many other harmful practices at the heart of the Church, so some people called for reforms:

  1. Living humbly: The high clergy was very wealthy, and many believed that this was not consistent with the Christian doctrine of poverty.
  2. Correcting moral standards: Priests sometimes did not honor their religious vows (e.g., by living with women, gambling, drinking, etc.) and they were not able to give proper spiritual guidance to their parishioners.
  3. Preventing corruption: Clergymen engaged in corrupt practices, such as nepotism (illegally giving church roles to family members).

People were calling for reform but the Church was resistant to change.

The Lutheran Reformation

  • The Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian church and the founding of Protestant churches.
  • The first religious reformation of the 16th century was started by a German friar called Martin Luther.
  • He opposed Pope Leo X’s proposal to grant indulgences in exchange for money to build St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.
  • In 1517, Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses criticizing indulgences. He posted the theses on the door of a church in Wittenberg so that they could be discussed. Thanks to the printing press, these ideas spread widely.

Lutheran Doctrine vs. Catholic Doctrine

Lutheran Doctrine

  1. Salvation through faith: To save your soul, you only needed to have very strong faith, so the Church’s involvement was not required.
  2. Free interpretation of the Bible: Anyone could interpret the Bible’s message, so the Church’s interpretation of it was not the only valid one.
  3. Reformation of the Sacraments: Lutheran doctrine included only two sacraments: Baptism and the Eucharist.
  4. Universal Priesthood: Lutherans rejected the hierarchy of the Catholic Church and the authority of the Pope. Protestant pastors replaced priests, but they did not have to be celibate.
  5. Religious orders were prohibited, as was the worship of images of the Virgin Mary and saints.

Catholic Doctrine

To achieve salvation, you must have faith, but also follow all precepts (commandments, sacraments, etc.) and do good works (pilgrimages, paying for indulgences, etc.).

The Church’s interpretation of the Bible was the only valid interpretation. The Church’s official Latin version was known as the Vulgate Bible.

Catholicism had seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Matrimony and Holy Orders.

The Catholic Church had a well-defined hierarchical structure separating the high and low clergy, with many different ranks whose members had to be celibate.

Religious and military orders and worshipping the Virgin Mary and saints were very important aspects of Catholicism.

The Pope asked Luther to retract his theses, but he refused and was excommunicated (expelled from the Christian community). He developed his own doctrine based on individual Christianity.

Lutheran ideas spread throughout the Holy Roman Empire, so Emperor Charles V intervened. He first tried to mediate, but Lutheranism was finally condemned in two imperial assemblies: the Diet of Worms and the Diet of Speyer. At this last assembly, six reformist princes and 14 cities protested about Luther’s condemnation. They became known as Protestants.

Calvinism

Protestant ideas spread throughout Europe and reached the Swiss Confederation, where they became even more radical. A French priest called John Calvin established a theocracy, a type of government based on the following principles:

  • Strict adherence to the Bible.
  • Belief in predestination, to be saved or to be condemned.
  • Humility and austerity.

Calvinists in France were called Huguenots, and in the Low Countries, Scotland and England were called Puritans.

The English Reformation

In England, religious reformation was more political than theological. King Henry VIII asked the Catholic Church to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn.

The Pope refused, and Henry VIII passed the Act of Supremacy, which granted him Royal Supremacy, meaning he became head of the Church of England, which separated from the Catholic Church. The English monarch had power over the Church.

The Catholic Reformation: The Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church tried to stop the spread of the Protestant Reformation by carrying out an internal reform called the Counter-Reformation. Its aim was:

  • To rectify internal problems.
  • To oppose Protestant doctrine.

The Council of Trent (1545–63)

The Council of Trent (1545–63) was a meeting in which a program of changes was formulated in response to the Protestant Reformation and to stop the crisis in the Catholic Church. The main agreements reached were:

  1. The Church’s hierarchical structure was reaffirmed. The Pope remained its head.
  2. Reaffirmation of Catholic Dogma (indisputable principles). Example: salvation was achieved through faith and good works.
  3. The Vulgate Bible was the only valid version, and the Catholic Church’s interpretation was the only correct one.
  4. The seven sacraments and worship of the Virgin Mary and saints were maintained.
  5. Priests and the high clergy needed to have better discipline and training.

To consolidate the work of the Council of Trent, the Inquisition was strengthened, and a list of prohibited books was introduced. In addition, the Society of Jesus was created by Ignatius of Loyola to promote Catholicism.