Thomas Aquinas: Harmonizing Faith, Reason, and Power
Medieval Philosophy: Papacy, Empire, Faith & Reason
The Political and Philosophical Divide
All European medieval philosophy was deeply marked by the struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, the two great powers vying for control over the dismembered remains of the Holy Roman Empire. Moreover, it is said that, from the tenth century onwards, the controversy concerning the relationship between faith and reason was essentially the philosophical and theological reflection of the political debate between advocates of papal power and those championing the emperor.
- Those who argued that philosophy was imposed on faith essentially contended that the emperor’s power exceeded that of the pope.
- Conversely, those who argued that philosophy was the handmaiden of theology believed that the political power of the pope superseded that of the emperor.
Thomas Aquinas: Bridging Divides
Although the wars between these two powers had less virulence during the lifetime of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), the underlying conflict persisted. The conflict most notably erupted when Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Emperor Frederick II because he refused to embark on a crusade he had promised to undertake. Thus, in the work of Thomas Aquinas, there is a clear purpose: to provide a picture of harmony between philosophy and religion. The best fruit of this endeavor, as we shall see, is natural theology, which translates into an understanding between the power of the Pope and the power of the Emperor.
Aristotle’s Influence in Medieval Europe
The Arrival of Aristotle’s Works
In the cultural environment of Saint Thomas’s time, early editions of Aristotle’s Physics and Metaphysics were arriving in Europe. These works had been preserved thanks to the Arab tradition and had passed into the West, especially through the Toledo School of Translators. These works came accompanied by commentaries made by the Arab philosopher Averroes, which corresponded quite well with the spirit and letter of Aristotle’s original works.
Initial Resistance & Student Uprising
The success of these writings was immediate among students of the newly established universities (until then, Aristotle was known only through his logic). However, the religious authorities who ran the universities did not initially view these new intellectual currents, coming from the hands of “infidel Moors,” favorably. Subsequently, when they had the opportunity to know Aristotle’s works in depth, what was initially suspicion became open hostility, and all his works, along with their accompanying commentaries, were banned. The result was a major student uprising, and, ironically, Aristotle’s thought became more popular than ever among students.
Thomas Aquinas’s Legacy & Works
Christianizing Aristotle’s Philosophy
In this situation, Albert the Great, from the field of natural sciences, attempted to Christianize Aristotle’s philosophy. However, it was his pupil, Thomas Aquinas, who achieved such a perfect Christianization of Aristotle that ecclesiastical authorities named Aquinas the “Holy Doctor of the Church” and the official theologian of the Catholic world. This recognition placed him on par with Aristotle, who was considered “the master of those who know” or simply “the Philosopher.” From this point forward, departing even one iota from the doctrine of these two thinkers could mean for a Christian the condemnation of their theories and books by official ecclesiastical censorship.
Key Works of Thomas Aquinas
The works of Thomas Aquinas are abundant and can be distinguished into three main groups:
- The Summas
- Commentaries on Aristotle
- Disputed Questions
His two best-known works are the Summa Theologica and the Summa Contra Gentiles.