Thomas Aquinas & Averroes: Philosophy, Faith, and Reason
Thomas Aquinas and Averroes
Modal Metaphysics
Modalities are the notions of possibility, impossibility, necessity, and contingency. Avicenna distinguishes between necessary and contingent being, and introduces a modal distinction between essence and existence. Essence can be considered in three ways: existing in reality, existing only in the mind, and considered in itself.
Creation: Aquinas discusses the creation of a necessary and eternal world by God. This creation is necessary and could not have not occurred. Averroes criticizes Avicenna’s concept of creation ex nihilo, finding it unacceptable. He also believes Avicenna’s philosophy is excessively influenced by Platonism. Averroes rejects the distinction between possible in itself and necessary for another, as well as the distinction between essence and existence. He argues that God’s existence is demonstrable through physical or cosmological arguments, not through the notion of necessary being as Avicenna claimed.
The Conflict Between Religion and Philosophy
This conflict arises because many access philosophy without proper training. Each person must understand revealed truths in the way best suited to them:
- Philosophy: For those who require rigorous proof.
- Theology: For those satisfied with probable arguments.
- Religion: For those who prefer arguments appealing to feelings.
The Double Truth: This doctrine suggests two opposing theses can both be true—one for reason and one for faith. While explicitly stated, it’s debated whether Averroes actually defended this doctrine.
Thomas Aquinas: Faith and Reason
Aquinas explores the relationship between faith and reason. He posits that philosophy cannot develop without faith as a starting point. He distinguishes between the natural order, where humans are considered natural beings, and the order of grace, where humans are elevated to children of God. The natural order is subordinate to grace but remains autonomous.
Natural Truths and Truths of Faith: Truths of faith are superior to reason, but there can be no contradiction between them. Truths of faith can be mysteries beyond reason or truths accessible to reason (though fitting for God to reveal).
Metaphysics
Aquinas makes a fundamental distinction between essence (what something is) and the act of being (esse) of that essence.
Substances can be material (accessible through senses, composed of matter and form) or immaterial (pure forms). Material substances are composed of substance and accidents. At a substantial level, they are composed of matter (potency) and form (act). Form and matter constitute the essence of material substance, which is itself potency in relation to the act of being. At an accidental level, substance possesses qualities (potency), and accidents are the acts that actualize those qualities. Immaterial substances lack matter; their essence coincides with their pure form. Like material substances, their essence is potency in relation to their act of being. God is pure act of being (esse). A necessary being is one whose essence is identical to its act of being. Other substances possess the act of being more or less perfectly according to their essence.
Anthropology
Aquinas rejects Platonic dualism, which identifies a person solely with their soul. The soul possesses higher and lower powers, as well as appetitive and cognitive operations (which may rely on the senses or understanding).
- Senses: Dependent on organs and cannot survive their destruction.
- Understanding: Independent of organs and knows all forms of things.
Conclusion: Since the soul can understand without organs, it can survive the body’s destruction, affirming the soul’s immortality.
Theory of Knowledge
Basic Principle: Nothing is in the intellect that hasn’t first passed through the senses. However, the object of knowledge is universal, not particular.
Two Types of Understanding:
- Possible Intellect: Receives immaterial intelligible forms as concepts.
- Agent Intellect: Illuminates images and extracts intelligible forms. It’s a light from God, but not divine, operating within the natural order.
Process of Knowledge: The imagination forms images from sensory data. Through abstraction, the agent intellect strips away individuality, leaving the universal essence. The possible intellect understands this universal concept. This concept is then applied to sensory images through judgment, determining whether a reality conforms to the concept.
Ethics
Aquinas’s ethics, heavily influenced by Aristotle, have a natural basis grounded in natural law. The ultimate goal of human conduct is happiness, which Aquinas clarifies is fully achieved in the supernatural destiny of human beings.
Virtue: A habit developed through repeated good acts, consisting in action that finds the rational mean between two opposing vices. Aquinas adds supernatural virtues, including the theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity).
Uses of Reason
: Theoretical. Its purpose is to be and is governed by the principle of non-contradiction. Practical. Its purpose is good and is governed by synderesis, which is the principle that it must do good and avoid evil. Natural law. They are the moral precepts of practical reason in human nature view. The natural law directs the inclinations second substance of the individual orders of our human nature: Substantial: rules relating to the preservation of life itself. Animality: provisions governing sexual orientation and care of children. Rationality precepts referring to knowledge of truth, especially with respect to God, and relations with other rational beings.