The Victorian Age: A Period of Contradictions and Change
The Victorian Age (1831/1837-1901)
Queen Victoria promoted family values and morality, becoming a model of respectability for English families. This era was marked by contradictions, reflected in its literature. Colonization expanded the British Empire, while industrialization brought both progress and exploitation. Technological advancements led to an exodus from the countryside to cities, creating suburbs and increasing the population. The railway facilitated the movement of goods and people, but wealth disparity widened, with the rich getting richer and the poor poorer. The aristocracy’s power prevented social revolution.
Shifting Values and Beliefs
Christianity’s influence declined as science challenged traditional beliefs. Darwinism, Lyell’s theories on Earth’s evolution, and the discovery of dinosaurs created confusion and a sense of earnestness—facing problems head-on. The growing middle class embraced Social Darwinism, which justified colonialism by claiming that more organized societies were stronger. Utilitarianism, the belief that actions are good if they benefit society, questioned the usefulness of religion and eroded traditional values, polarizing society.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
A brilliant and rational man, John Stuart Mill acknowledged the importance of both reason and art. As a Member of Parliament and university rector, he advocated for individual liberty and responsibility in his influential work, On Liberty (1859). He defended religious liberty, freedom of speech, thought, and emotion, arguing that liberty and usefulness were intertwined. His ideas had significant applications in various spheres:
- Economy: He advocated for a free market and economy, believing it to be beneficial for society.
- Social Issues: He supported freedom of marriage, including cross-class marriages.
- Education: He believed in both public and private education, arguing that competition was beneficial.
Key Ideas in On Liberty
- Individuality and Originality: Mill argued that individuals should pursue their own tastes and ideas, as self-development is part of human nature. He believed that tradition and customs could hinder individuality and that strong impulses and desires were positive.
- Calvinism and Religion: Mill criticized Calvinism’s emphasis on restraining impulses, arguing that God intended for humans to develop and contribute to society. He believed that repressing individuality was harmful.
- Elitism: Mill advocated for protecting and nurturing geniuses, believing they would eventually educate others. He considered the middle class mediocre and criticized the press’s influence.
- Justification of Colonialism: Mill believed that colonialism was part of the utilitarian project, as it helped colonies develop.
Tennyson: Poet of the Victorian Era
Alfred Tennyson, the Poet Laureate, was a central figure in Victorian poetry. Influenced by Romanticism, his early poems displayed melancholy. His friend Arthur H. Hallam’s rejection of subjectivity in poetry encouraged Tennyson to address social concerns in his later works, such as his famous poem “In Memoriam.”
Analysis of Tennyson’s Poems
- “Break, Break, Break”: The poem’s rhythm emulates the movement of waves, reflecting the ongoing cycle of life. The speaker observes others’ happiness with envy, questioning the inevitability of repetition and expressing a desire for genuine novelty. The poem highlights nature’s indifference to human emotions.
- “The Kraken”: This poem references a large, ancient, and unknown creature, possibly symbolizing nature or the pagan legends being uncovered by scientific discoveries. The poem explores the movement of time and space, suggesting that scientific progress can have both positive and negative consequences.
Mathew Arnold: Advocate for Education Reform
Mathew Arnold, a symbol of Victorian earnestness, sought to reform the English education system and address social injustices. He believed that all social classes lacked proper values and advocated for an education based on classical literature. Uncomfortable with Christianity, he expressed his concerns in his poem “Dover Beach.”
Analysis of “Dover Beach”
- Shifting Moods: The poem transitions from a pleasant atmosphere to a chaotic one, triggered by a realization of reality. The speaker reflects on the fading “Sea of Faith” (Christianity) and the exposure of individuals who have lost their faith.
- Symbolism: The sea, night, and pebbles evoke a sense of sadness and tragedy, reminiscent of the pagan past. Dover, a place of historical transitions, symbolizes uncertainty about the future.
- Speaker: The poem’s speaker remains unidentified, representing a universal experience of questioning social values in a changing world.
The Victorian Age was a time of significant change and contradictions, reflected in its literature and social discourse. Writers like John Stuart Mill, Tennyson, and Mathew Arnold explored themes of individuality, progress, faith, and the impact of scientific discoveries on society. Their works continue to resonate today, offering insights into the complexities of the human experience and the challenges of navigating a rapidly evolving world.