The Umayyad Dynasty and the Evolution of Islam
The Umayyad Dynasty
After Ali’s death, Mu’awiya took over the caliphate founding the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) and moved the capital to Damascus. Mu’awiya achieved the modernization of the army, which led to territorial expansion. He introduced registries in administration and an effective postal system. On a political level, he practiced a tribal system of leadership, reviving Sura (council of elders) and wufud (delegations sent by tribes to inform the caliph). Therefore, in this era, blood and tribal relations resurfaced, substituting the former religious faith as the main element of unification of society. Mu’awiya named his son Yazid as his successor. There were many revolts in Medina (by old Muslim families rallied around Abduya ibn Zabayr) and Kufa (Ali’s old capital, who were supporting Husayn, Ali’s son, as the leader of the revolt, which turned into a civil war – Battle of Karbala in 680 – where Husayn was killed).
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam: defends that the caliph is the elected successor of the Prophet. And succeeded to political and military leadership of the community but had only limited religious status. Sia Islam: The leadership is placed on the Iman who had to be a direct descendant of Muhammad and Ali. The title was only appointed by God and he had both political power and an authoritative interpreter.
Muslim Brotherhood
Muslim Brotherhood: It emerges in the Suez Canal, for it being the region with the strongest colonial presence. Founded by Hassan al-Banna, the movement called for the implementation of the Sharia law as a way to subvert European domination. They had developed an idea according to which the main enemies of Islam are the West or they developed later a doctrine called Takfirism (if a Muslim was to deviate from the right path, he is an apostate and he can be killed). It branched out across the Middle East (Hamas, 1987). Its Islamic discourse was a means to criticize foreign companies and their sponsor governments in the exploitation of Egyptian workers. They also believed in the importance of charity and have conservative views on gender rights.
The Gulf
The Gulf: Formal colony in South Yemen. The Arabian Peninsula was peripheral to the politics of the region. The peninsula was ruled by a confederation of tribes tied together through political allegiances and religious affiliation. From the north, they became the preeminent political force in the Peninsula in the 20th century.
The Independence War of 1948
The independence war of 1948 that ended in an armistice and resulted in the creation of the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF). Israel increased its territory nearly 23% more than what had initially been assigned by the 1. The Gaza Strip and the West Bank were annexed by Egypt and Jordan respectively (Palestinian territories were not only occupied by Israel but by Jordan and Egypt). It’s also the beginning of the Palestinian Refugee problem. This situation remained until the Six Day War (1967).
The Yom-Kippur (1973)
The Yom-Kippur (1973) lasted 6 months and the Israelis could not foresee this war so it was seen as a defeat even though Israel didn’t lose its positions. It was a turning point because the Arab States decided to join efforts against Israel using oil. The Gulf monarchies decided to carry out an embargo of oil to the countries that supported Israel. This caused a worldwide crisis due to the high prices which made the conflict’s nature turn domestic and forced western countries to decide between Israel or Oil.