The Tumultuous Reign of Isabel II: A History of 19th Century Spain
The Regency of Maria Cristina and the First Carlist War (1833-1840)
Upon the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, his daughter Isabel inherited the throne, sparking a succession crisis. Her uncle, Don Carlos, claimed the throne based on Salic Law, which excluded female rulers. This led to the First Carlist War, a conflict between Isabel’s supporters (Cristinos or Liberals) and Carlists (absolutists). Isabel’s mother, Maria Cristina, served as regent during her minority.
The regency faced challenges from a weak bourgeoisie and a large peasant population attached to traditional ways. Two constitutions were enacted during this period: the Royal Statute of 1834 and the Constitution of 1837. The Royal Statute was based on the Crown and the Cortes (parliament), but lacked provisions for national sovereignty and individual rights. The Constitution of 1837 addressed these shortcomings, recognizing national sovereignty, including a bill of rights, and balancing power between the Crown and the Cortes.
The Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal (1836-1837) aimed to address state funding needs by seizing and selling Church-owned lands. This further fueled the conflict between the liberal state and the Church, which largely supported the Carlist cause.
The Regency of Espartero and the Rise of Moderates (1840-1843)
Following revolutionary movements in 1840, Maria Cristina resigned and General Espartero became regent. His progressive policies led to a coup by General Narváez in 1843, bringing the Moderate Party to power.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
Isabel II was declared of age at 13, and the Moderates dominated the government. The Constitution of 1845 established joint sovereignty between the Crown and the Cortes. The Concordat of 1851 addressed the rift between the Church and the state following the confiscations. Administrative reforms included the creation of provinces, municipal organization, tax reform, the founding of the Bank of Spain, a new criminal code, and the establishment of the Civil Guard.
The Progressive Biennium and the Return of Moderates (1854-1868)
In 1854, General O’Donnell led a revolt against the government, ushering in a two-year period of Progressive rule. The General Confiscation of 1855, led by Madoz, targeted Church and municipal properties. The Railways Act of 1855 promoted railway development. However, the Progressives were soon replaced by the Moderates under Narváez.
O’Donnell returned to power in 1858, forming the Liberal Union party. His attempts to broaden the political base failed due to internal divisions. Growing opposition to Isabel II led to the 1866 Pact of Ostend, where Progressives and Democrats agreed to depose the Queen. O’Donnell’s death in 1867 further destabilized the situation, paving the way for the 1868 revolution.