The Transformation of Europe: From Division to Union
A Divided Europe After World War II
One of the most significant consequences of World War II was the division of Europe. Germany was divided into four occupation zones assigned to the United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. In 1949, the first three zones merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), while the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The former capital, Berlin, was located within the GDR.
The Rise of People’s Democracies
Eastern European countries liberated from Nazi occupation by Soviet troops adopted communist regimes. These “People’s Democracies” behind the Iron Curtain included East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Albania. Additionally, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were incorporated into the USSR.
While technically independent states, these nations were largely under Moscow’s control through the Warsaw Pact and COMECON. Notable exceptions were Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, and Albania, which developed its own distinct communist system.
These democracies shared common characteristics:
- The label of “democracy” was maintained by allowing the existence of other political parties alongside the dominant communist party.
- The operation of state institutions mirrored the structure of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
Dissidence and Tensions in Eastern Europe
Several problems plagued these Eastern European nations:
- Low standard of living
- Strain on budgets due to the Cold War arms race
- Lack of freedoms
These tensions erupted in various conflicts, including:
- The coup in Prague in 1948
- The Hungarian Revolution of 1956
- The Prague Spring of 1968
- The struggle for freedom in Poland during the 1980s
The Capitalist West
Meanwhile, Western Europe experienced its own transformations:
- In the UK, Margaret Thatcher rose to prominence.
- Charles de Gaulle became a symbol of Free France during the German occupation. France faced challenges with Algerian independence and the student revolt of May 1968.
- In Germany, a defining moment was the construction of the Berlin Wall on August 21, 1961, separating East and West Berlin.
The Emergence of the Welfare State
The concept of the welfare state gained traction, with strong states prioritizing the economic and social well-being of their citizens.
The Path to European Integration
From Marshall Plan to European Economic Community
The Marshall Plan, requiring recipient countries to manage aid distribution, led to the creation of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948, later renamed the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1961. The Council of Europe was formed a year later, followed by the Benelux Union (1948) and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951), which served as precursors to the European Economic Community (EEC).
The Treaty of Rome and the EEC
The Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the EEC. The six founding members were Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, France, and Germany.
Expansion of the European Community
From Six to Twelve Members
Over nearly three decades, the EEC expanded its membership:
- 1973: Denmark, Ireland, and the UK joined (Europe of the Nine)
- 1981: Greece joined
- 1986: Portugal and Spain joined (Europe of the Twelve)
The inclusion of Southern European countries with less developed economies represented a significant cooperative effort.
Europe in the Late 1980s
Europe faced challenges in the 1980s, including resistance to economic leveling efforts required for new members and dependence on external sources for raw materials. However, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked a turning point, leading to the collapse of communist systems in Eastern Europe, German reunification, and the disintegration of the USSR.
The Birth of the European Union
In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty transformed the EC into the European Union (EU), expanding beyond economic unity to encompass a broader sense of shared identity. Key aspects of the treaty included the introduction of European citizenship and the adoption of a single currency (the Euro).
Austria, Sweden, and Finland joined the EU after the Maastricht Treaty, creating the “Europe of the Fifteen.”
Expansion in the 21st Century
The 21st century witnessed significant EU enlargement:
- 2004: Ten new members joined, including the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, and Poland.
- 2007: Bulgaria and Romania joined, expanding the EU to 27 members.
Uncertainties and Challenges
The EU faces ongoing challenges, including:
- The question of how many members the EU can sustainably support
- Concerns about the Euro’s stability and adoption by all member states
- The need to balance security and liberty in the face of threats like terrorism and organized crime
The Lisbon Treaty aims to strengthen the EU’s ability to address these challenges and navigate the complexities of the 21st century.