The Thirteen Colonies and the French Revolution: A Historical Overview
The Thirteen Colonies: War and Independence
Since the 17th century, groups of European emigrants, mainly from England, had settled on the east coast of North America. Some had fled political instability and religious persecution in their countries of origin. The British monarchy organized the colonists into 13 demarcations or
The Thirteen Colonies
After the Seven Years’ War between Great Britain and France, the British created a large permanent army in America. They forced colonists to fund it through new taxes, but the colonists rebelled. Their slogan was ‘no taxation without representation’ because they had no representatives in the Parliament in London.
A revolutionary process began. In 1776, delegates from the Thirteen Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence from Great Britain. The colonies became known as states, and the new country was called the United States of America. The British were opposed to these changes, and the American War of Independence began. The Peace of Paris was signed in 1783. Great Britain formally recognized the new country’s independence.
The French Revolution
Difficult Times for the Monarchy
In the last third of the 18th century, under the reign of Louis XVI, France was a model of absolute monarchy ruled under the principles of enlightened despotism. However, large segments of the population had begun to criticize the situation and demand a change of regime. In 1789, the French Revolution began.
Factors that Triggered the Revolution
- The Liberal Ideas of the Enlightenment: They became popular among the French population.
- The Example of the United States: Some French people had fought on the side of the colonists in the American War of Independence. Some of the delegates who had signed the Declaration of Independence used to visit France.
- Inequality Before the Law: Noblemen and clerics did not pay direct taxes. The Third Estate (who did pay taxes) criticized it and they agreed that they did not bring any economic benefit to society.
- Economic Crisis: After the Seven Years’ War, France lost possessions. This also affected the Royal Treasury, which had to pay debts. Despite this, the court at Versailles did not reduce its spending on luxuries.
- Political Unrest: They criticized the Old Regime through propaganda pamphlets that were printed and distributed, and books of grievances (libros de reclamaciones) were compiled in France’s towns and cities.
- Social Inequalities: The population had grown a lot and when there were bad harvests, agricultural production could no longer satisfy the demand for food.
The Estates-General (1789)
Its first phase began when King Louis XVI assembled a consultative Parliament, the Estates-General. The Estates-General was assembled because the Royal Treasury had problems paying its expenses. It proposed that the rich pay taxes. As it was an estate assembly, the voting system was one per estate (attendee). The Third Estate delegates then formed the National Assembly. They declared themselves the only representatives of the French people and swore not to depart until France had a Constitution.
National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
While the National Assembly was doing its work, the Parisians rose up and attacked the Bastille prison, where the political prisoners of the absolute monarchy were being detained. The soldiers defending the prison opened the doors so that they could escape. The king drew up the Constitution of 1791, which established the division of powers and incorporated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Although Louis XVI seemed to accept the situation, he contacted other absolute monarchies to conspire against the new regime. But he was discovered and detained in the Tuileries Palace.
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
Once the Constitution was approved, elections were held following Censitary suffrage. The results determined the formation of the Legislative Assembly. It was in charge of preparing the laws. Three new political tendencies appeared:
- The Plain: They were deputies who were in the majority and did not belong to any party.
- The Girondins: With the second highest number of representatives, they were moderates, federalists, and supporters of the parliamentary monarchy.
- The Jacobins: They were the minority. They were radical liberals, centralists, and supporters of the Republic.
Meanwhile, the absolutist powers of Austria and Prussia attacked France and threatened Paris in 1792.
National Convention (1792-1795)
The Assembly assumed legislative executive powers, becoming a National Convention. A new Constitution was to be created, but because of the war, the priority was fighting the invaders. The Jacobins obtained more representatives than the Girondins in the elections, but they did not win a majority. The Convention removed and imprisoned Louis XVI, and the Republic was proclaimed in September 1792. The Jacobins took control of the Convention. The king was tried for treason and executed by guillotine.
Marie Antoinette married Louis XVI. The French people accused her of defending Austrian interests and spending money on whims while the people starved. She was convicted and executed by guillotine in 1793.) The Terror period began in 1793. Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins, ordered the execution of anti-revolutionaries and anyone suspected of being an anti-revolutionary. The excesses and constant instability led a moderate sector of the deputies to carry out a coup d’état (golpe de estado) in 1794. They seized power and sentenced Robespierre to death. This started what was called the “White Terror” against the Jacobins. The Convention began drafting a new Constitution.
The Directory (1795-1799)
The new Constitution was approved in 1795. The new legal text established an executive power called the ‘Directory’. Internal instability and the lack of a definitive victory abroad led to a new coup d’état.
The Consulate (1799-1804)
The most prestigious French general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led a coup d’état in 1799. The new constitutional text established a Congress and a Senate with very few powers, whereas the Consulate, which was the government, had executive and legislative powers.
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