The Study of Literature
CHAPTER I SUMMARY
Chapter 1 begins with an extract of Henry V, one of Shakespeare’s best known plays. It refers to the English “noblest” spirit and makes an external reference to Chaucer, an English poet of the 14th Century.* The chapter begins with a story called The shell and the book. It tells the story of a child who came across a little shell by the seashore and held it to his ear. He listened with delight to the strange and melodious sounds. Then a man came and explained that the boy heard nothing strange, that the shell simply caught a lot of sounds too faint for human ears. He explained that they were not the sounds of a new world, but only the unnoticed sounds of the world we know that aroused the child’s wonder.*Experiences like this happen to the reader when he begins reading and studying Literature. The study of
Literature has got two aspects, one of enjoyment and appreciation, the other of analysis and description. The main objective is to enter and enjoy this new world, but it is also important to analyze and explain it. Behind every Literature work is a man, behind the man is his race and behind his race are the natural and social environments whose influence is unconsciously reflected in his writing.* This chapter also deals with the qualities of Literature.* All Literature is essentially artistic. It is the reflection of some truth and beauty which are in the world, but which remain unnoticed until they are brought to our attention by some sensitive human soul.* The second quality of literature is its suggestiveness, its appeal to our emotions and imagination rather than to our intellect. *The third characteristic of literature is its
permanence. The world does not let beautiful things perish. History records men’s deeds, but every great act springs from an ideal and to understand men’s ideals we must read their literature. When we read about the history of the Anglo-Saxons, for instance, we learn that they were sea rovers, pirates, explorers, great eaters and drinkers, but it does not tell us what most we want to know about them—not only what they did, but what they thought and felt, how they looked on life and death, what they loved and they feared, and what they reverenced in God and man. *It is so with any age or people. To understand them we must read not simply their history, which records their deeds, but their literature, which records the dreams that made their deeds possible.* The author also refers to the importance of
literature. * Literature preserves the ideals of a people; and ideals – love, faith, duty, friendship, freedom, religion- are the part of human life most worthy of preservation.
CHAPTER II SUMMARY
: Chapter II deals with the literature of the Anglo Saxon period (also called” old English period”) The story of Beowulf, the first epic (or heroic poem) written in English, is told. *It begins with the coming of Scyld (who later on became king of the Danes) to English soil. *One of Scyld’s descendants was Hrothgar ; and with him the story of Beowulf begins. Hrothgar (king of the Danes) built a mead hall (Heorot) , where he and his men gathered nightly to feast and sing and listen to the songs of gleemen. One night, a frightful monster called Grendel, broke into the hall and killed some of Hrothgar’s warriors. For many years Grendel’s raids
continued. Beowulf hears of these attacks and crosses the sea in order to help the Danes who were his father’s friends. Beowulf defeats Grendel. Grendel’s mother appears looking for revenge. Beowulf fights with her and finally defeats her too. The last part of the poem shows Beowulf as an old, wise and just man and king. He has reigned for fifty years. He is beloved by his people. He has to fight again against a monster (a fire dragon). This is his final fight. Although the story is purely mythical, there are historical events which may have served as a foundation for the poem (there existed many legends of northern chiefs who fought the Franks) *Critics think that Beowulf’s successive fights represent (or symbolize), first, the danger of the sea, second, the conquering of the sea itself and third, the conflict with the hostile forces of nature,
which are overcome at last by man’s will and perseverance. * We have to bear in mind that the literature of a people springs directly out of its life. The barbarous life of the Anglo Saxons was a constant hardship, an endless struggle against savage nature and savage men. Although the sea, with its fogs and storms and ice, represented a threat, they loved it and this love for the ocean finds expression in all their literature. *As regards Anglo saxons’ ideals and principles in life, we can mention their love for personal freedom, their religion, their reverence for womanhood and their struggle for glory. *Concerning the poetical form of Beowulf, we find the use of strong accents and alliteration (that is, the beginning of two or more words in the same line with the same sound or letter. It is a very common device in literature for children, eg. Donald
–Duck, Mickey Mouse). The lines were made up of two short halves, separated by a pause and no rhyme was used (on page 22, we can compare an old english version of an extract of the poem and its modern english version). *Other important poems of the period are: WIDSITH, DEOR ’S LAMENT, THE SEAFARER, etc. Some important writers of the period are: BEDE (called “the first English historian”), CAEDMON, and CYNEWULF. *All of these writers were representatives of the “Northumbrian literature”. Northumbria was the name given to the south and centre part of England. In the 9th Century Northumbria was taken by the Danes. Many written works were burnt and schools and monasteries destroyed. *King Alfred drove the Danes back (Danelaw) in an attempt to preserve the Anglo saxon civilization. With King
Alfred, English prose begins. He ordered the Anglo saxon Chronicles (first record of the Kingdom) to be written. He wanted to educate his people. He wanted every Englishman to read and write in his own language- not in Latin. *Although King Alfred unified the country, he did not have a national spirit. He was tribal in his conceptions of politics and life.
CHAPTER III SUMMARY:
This chapter deals with the so called “Anglo-Norman period” (1066-1350) in Literature. *We can mention three great results of the Norman Conquest. First, the Normans brought the culture and the practical ideals of Roman civilization to the English people. Second, they forced upon England the national idea, that is, a strong, centralized government to replace the loose authority of the Saxon chief over his tribesmen. And the
world’s history shows that without a great nationality a great literature is impossible. Third, they brought to England the wealth of a new language and literature, and English gradually absorbed both. For three centuries, French was the language of the upper classes, of courts and schools and literature. At first, Normans and Saxons lived apart in the relation of masters and servants. Gradually, the two races united and out of this union came the new English life and literature. *LITERARY IDEALS OF THE NORMANS- The change of Northmen into Normans – that is, from Vikings to Frenchmen- is shown in their literature. Northmen (that is, Vikings) wrote and told about magnificent sagas about tragic struggles of men and Gods. These sagas turned to bright, talkative literature and endless verses which make a wonderful
romance out of everything it touches (typical of the Normans). *There was more of fancy than of thought and feeling in Norman literature. *A romance is a story of love, adventure, mystery, whose events are happier and more exciting than those of real life. *LITERATURE OF THE NORMAN PERIOD — Literature in this period was in the hands of the clergy and nobles. The common people could not read and had only few songs and ballads for their literary portion. *A beautiful manuscript, written about 1330, with over 40 distinct works, sums up the age. It is medieval in spirit and French in style and expression. * As regards literary types, we note that Rhyming chronicles (or verse history) and the metrical romance have got special significance. *Rhyming chronicle deals with history told in the form of verse. Metrical romance
deals with romance in the form of poetry. *The most significant poet of this period was Geoffrey. He wrote Historia Regum Britanniae . He rescued Celtic legends and wrote a complete history of the Britons. This work has no historical value but it is interesting because it gave a new direction to the literature of England, showing the wealth of Celtic tradition (e. g the legends of King Arthur and his knights). Geoffrey wrote in Latin. Later on, his work was translated by French writers. Afterwards, the French version was translated into English. * As regards riming chronicles, LAYAMON’S BRUT is the most important. It marks the first appearance of the Arthurian legends in Anglosaxon speech. *Concerning Metrical romances, we find three great ideals. These are love, chivalry and religion. *Metrical romance has the form of long
poems. Rhymes and assonances were used to give melody to the poems. *Assonance is a device used in poetry. It is the similarity in the sounds of words — especially of vowel sounds – e.g. born and warm. *We note three main divisions ( or matter ) , according to subject, into the romances . • The matter of France ( it deals largely with the exploits of Charlemagne ) •The matter of Rome ( consisted of the tales from Greek and Roman sources) •The matter of Britain ( deals with the exploits of Arthur and his knights of the round table ). The most interesting of all Arthurian romances is the story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. In the same manuscript with “ Sir Gawain “ are found three other remarkable poems , griten about 1350, and known to us , in order, as “The pearl”,” Cleanness” , and “ Patience “. **While most of the literature of
the time was intended for the upper classes, there were singers who made ballads for the common people. For centuries, they were the only really popular literature. In ballads alone one is able to understand the common people. For instance, the ballads about Robin Hood are an expression of the dreams of an ignorant and oppressed but essentially noble people, struggling and determined to be free. **Chaucer’s poetry: is extremely musical and must be judged by the ear rather than by the eye. To the modern reader the lines appear broken and uneven, but if one reads them over a few times, he soon catches the perfect swing of the measure, and finds that he is in the hands of a master whose ear is delicately sensitive to the smallest accent. ** Argument of the Faery Queen: from the introductory letter we learn that the
hero visits the queen’s court in fairy land, while she is holding a twelve – days festival. On each day some distressed dragons, of enchantresses, or of distressed beauty or virtue, and asks for a champion to right the wrong and to let the oppressed go free. **The origin of the drama: first the deed, then the story, then the play, that seems to be natural development of the drama in its simplest form. The great deeds of a people are treasured in its literature, and later generations represents in a play or pantomime certain parts of the history which appeal most powerfully to the imagination. Among primitive races the deeds of their gods and heroes are often represented at the yearly festivals, and among children, whose instincts are not yet blunted by artificial habits. **Plan of the Canterbury tales: opposite old
London, at the southern end of London Bridge, once stood the tobord Inn of the Southwork, a quarter made famous not only by the Canterbury tales, but also by the first playhouses where Shakespeare had his training this Southwork was the point of departure of all travel to the South of England, especially of those medieval pilgrim ages to the shrine of Tomas a Becket in Carterbury. *** CHAPTER IV SUMMARY: THE AGE OF ELIZABETH (1550-1620) *The most characteristic features of the age were: ● the comparative religious tolerant. ●the social contentment (manufacturing gave employment to thousands. Trade brought wealth and for the first time some systematic care for the needed was attempted) ● it was an age of dreams and adventure (springing from the new lands) ●intellectual liberty,
growing intelligence and comfort among the classes. *The non-dramaiic poets of the Elizabethan Age. *Edmund Spenser (1552-1599). He was born in East Smithfield , near the Tower of London. He was poor and his three great influences were : Cambridge (where he studied the Classics), London (where he experienced court life) and Ireland ( where he wrote his masterpiece ” The Faery Queen” )*The plan of the poem was to portrait each moral virtue as a Knight fighting his opposite vice . The poem tells the story of the conflict. It is purely allegorical not only in its personified virtues but also in its representation of life as a struggle between good and evil . *Poetical form . For The Faery Queen , Spenser created a new verse form called the Spenserian stanza . It consisted of a nine lines stanza riming a b a b b e bc c. *As regards
Spenser’s poetry , we can mention his perfect melody and rare sense of beauty . In reading Spenser we think of the beauty of expression. **THE FIRST ENGLISH DRAMATISTS *Generally the great deeds of a people are told in its Literature, and later generations represent in plays those stories. This happened especially with the life of Christ. His life found his way into literature and we have the Gospels . Worship led to stablish rituals in which scenes from his life were represented in churches . *It was very effective mainly with people who Could not read . These representations gave birth to Miracle plays . Out of these came directly the drama of the Elizabethan Age . **PERIODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA **1 – THE RELIGOUS PERIOD : Miracle plays . These plays represented the lives of the Saints and
and had their origin in the Bible. When fun and hilarity began to predominate , priests forbade plays on church grounds . By 1300 the Miracle plays were out of ecclesiastical hands and were adopted by the town guilds . **2- THE MORAL PERIOD: Morality plays. In these plays the characters were allegorical personages. Life , Death, Repentance , Goodness , Love , Greed, and other virtues and vices . Morality plays differ from Miracle plays in that they gave free scope to the imagination for new plots. ** 3- THE ARTISTIC PERIOD OF THE DRAMA: It is the final stage in the development of the English drama. Its chief purpose was to represent life as it is . ***CLASSICAL INFLUENCE UPON THE DRAMA * The revival of Latin literature had a great influence upon the English drama. In the 15th Century English teachers began to let their students act
the plays which they had read . Seneca was the favourite Latin author and ail his tragedies were translated into English between 1559 and 1581. *But classical drama was much simpler than the new English drama. The dramatic units of time and place remained the same and action took place at the spot where the play began. The characters , therefore , remained unchanged . The classic drama also drew a sharp line between tragedy and comedy, all fun being excluded from serious representations. *The English drama, on the other hand, represented the whole of life in a single play . The scene changed rapidly and drama and comedy were presented side by side as they are in life itself. In England two schools of drama arose . One upheld the classical ideal . The other was called the “school of popular playwrights-MOST
SIGNIFICANT PLAYWRIGHTS OF THE PERIOD – CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE ( 1564 – 1593)* He wrote four dramas , known as the “one – man type of tragedy ” or “Marlowesque These plays revolved about one central personality who is consumed by the lust of power . The first of Marlowe’s plays is Tamburlaine , the second is Faustus , the third is The Jew of Malta and the last one Edward II. *Marlowe’s work is remarkable for its imagination and its poetic beauty . **WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE ( 1564 – 1616 ) *Shakespeare’s works are remarkable because of their dramatic genius , knowledge of human life , humour and delineation of women’s character . * Among Shakespeare ‘ s most important plays we can mention : Henry VI, Richard III (taken from English chronicle history ), Comedy of Errors ,
Midsummer Night’s dream , Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra . *Ben Jonson anticipated Shakespeare’s dazzling future when he declared , “he was not of an age but for all tune “. Shakespeare’s ability to summaries the range of human emotions in simple yet profound eloquent verse is perhaps the greatest reason for his enduring popularity .