The State and Sovereignty in Political Science

Posted on Jan 18, 2026 in Philosophy and ethics

Functions and Nature of the State

In political science, understanding the boundaries and functions of the State is essential, as the term is often colloquially confused with “government,” “society,” or “nation.”

Primary Functions of the Modern State

The modern state serves two primary categories of functions: Essential (Compulsory) and Welfare (Optional).

Essential Functions

These are required for the very survival and identity of the state:

• Protection of Sovereignty: Maintaining a military to defend borders from foreign invasion.
• Maintenance of Law and Order: Using police and a legal system to prevent internal chaos.
• Administration of Justice: Providing courts to resolve disputes and punish criminals.

Welfare Functions

Modern states are increasingly “Welfare States,” taking on roles that improve the quality of life:

• Economic Regulation: Managing currency, trade, and preventing monopolies.
• Social Services: Providing healthcare, education, and social security.
• Infrastructure: Building roads, bridges, and digital networks.

Distinguishing the State from Other Entities

While these terms are related, they represent different concepts of human organization.

State vs. Society

Society is the broader “web of social relationships” (families, clubs, religions), while the State is the formal political structure.

• Origin: Society is natural and predates the State. The State is an organized political institution that came later.
• Scope: Society includes all social interactions (voluntary); the State only deals with political relations (compulsory).
• Power: The State possesses sovereignty and the power to punish (coercion). Society relies on social pressure and customs.

State vs. Government

Think of the State as the organization and the Government as the manager.

• Permanence: The State is relatively permanent. Governments change frequently through elections or revolutions.
• Abstract vs. Concrete: The State is an abstract concept; for instance, one cannot “see” the State of India. The Government is a concrete group of people (ministers, officials) you can identify.
• Membership: Everyone in a territory is a member of the State, but only a small fraction of people form the Government.

State vs. Nation

The State is a legal/political entity, while a Nation is a cultural/psychological entity.

• Bond: A State is held together by laws and territory. A Nation is held together by shared language, history, or ethnicity (e.g., the “Jewish Nation” existed long before the “State of Israel”).
• Sovereignty: Sovereignty is essential for a State. A Nation can exist without it (like the Kurds, who are a nation without a formal state).
• Nation-State: When the boundaries of a nation and a state coincide, it is called a “Nation-State” (e.g., Japan or France).

Summary Comparison Table

The Concept of Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the “soul” of the state—it is the supreme, final, and absolute power that distinguishes a state from all other associations.

Meaning and Characteristics

The term is derived from the Latin word Superanus, meaning “supreme.” In political science, it refers to the highest authority within a state which has the legal right to command and enforce obedience from its members, and is independent of any external control.

Main Characteristics

Classic political theory identifies several “essential” attributes of sovereignty:

• Absoluteness: There is no power higher than the sovereign within the state. It is not subject to any other authority.
• Permanence: Sovereignty lasts as long as the state exists. The death of a ruler or a change in government does not end sovereignty; it simply passes to the next “manager.”
• Universality (Comprehensiveness): The sovereign’s power extends over all persons and associations within the state’s territory. No one is above the law.
• Inalienability: Sovereignty is the very life-blood of the state. It cannot be given away or transferred without the state ceasing to exist.
• Indivisibility: Traditionally, sovereignty is seen as a single unit. To divide it is to destroy it (though this is debated by federalists).

Types of Sovereignty

• Internal Sovereignty: The state’s supreme authority over all its citizens and groups.
• External Sovereignty: The state’s independence from foreign control and its equality in the eyes of international law.
• Legal vs. Political: The Legal Sovereign is the person/body with the power to make laws (like Parliament), while the Political Sovereign is the power behind the law (the people or the electorate).
• De Jure vs. De Facto: De Jure is sovereignty based on law/right, whereas De Facto is sovereignty based on physical force or actual control (e.g., a revolutionary group that has taken power but is not yet legally recognized).

Theories of Sovereignty

The debate over sovereignty is largely a contest between two schools of thought.

Monistic Theory (Traditional View)

The Monistic theory, most famously articulated by John Austin in his book Lectures on Jurisprudence, views sovereignty as a single, centralized power.

• Key Idea: Sovereignty must reside in a “determinate human superior.”
• Command Theory: Law is simply the “command of the sovereign.”
• Nature: It is absolute, indivisible, and unlimited. If a sovereign’s power is limited, they are no longer sovereign.
• Criticism: Critics argue this is a “legal fiction” that ignores the role of customs, morals, and international law.

Pluralist Theory (Modern View)

Pluralism arose as a reaction against the Monistic view. Thinkers like Harold Laski and Robert MacIver argue that the state is just one of many associations (like the church, trade unions, or families) that people belong to.

• Key Idea: Sovereignty is not absolute; it is shared or limited.
• Role of the State: The state is not the master of all other associations; it is a “first among equals” or a coordinator of social groups.
• Decentralization: Pluralists believe power should be distributed across various social and political centers to prevent tyranny.
• Laski’s Quote: “Since society is federal, authority must also be federal.”

Comparison of Sovereignty Theories