The Spanish War of Independence and the Democratic Sexenio
1.3 The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The events of the crisis provoked by the Bourbon monarchy caused a popular rebellion. On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose up against the French troops. Their example was followed in many other places. This caused a popular resistance movement. Boards were created to lead the resistance, coordinated by a Supreme Central Junta, while patriotic groups organized guerrillas to harass the French. The refusal of the cities to surrender to the French also influenced the invaders’ troop attrition during the war. In 1812, the situation changed when the Russian campaign forced Napoleon to move part of his army to that country. The aid offered by British troops under the command of Wellington was instrumental. At the end of 1813, the French began to leave Spanish territory. That same year, the Treaty of Valençay was signed, by which Ferdinand VII recovered the crown, and Napoleon withdrew his troops from Spain.
The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
Over six years, the construction of a democratic regime was attempted in Spain. This meant overcoming the conservative liberalism of the previous stage and introducing the principles of democracy: universal male suffrage, broad political rights, and social reforms to advance equality.
6.1 The Revolution of 1868
A severe economic crisis, coupled with the wear and tear of Elizabeth’s regime’s policies, triggered a revolution against the monarchy. Those marginalized from power led the uprising: Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats who came together to present an alternative to the system, based on the democratization of political life and economic recovery. (Pact of Ostend)
The military movement, led by Prim and Serrano, erupted in September 1868 with the revolt of Brigadier Topete‘s fleet in the Bay of Cadiz. The uprising was followed by riots in major cities, where revolutionary juntas were formed. Troops loyal to the government were defeated in Alcolea, and Queen Elizabeth II went into exile. A Provisional Government headed by Prim and Serrano was formed, which drove a reform agenda. Fundamental rights and universal male suffrage were recognized, education was reformed, and municipalities were democratized. Finally, a new constitution was chosen, which was approved in 1869, of a democratic nature.
The Democratic Monarchy (1870-1873)
The 1869 Constitution established a monarchy as the form of government, and a king was sought among European dynasties. Amadeo of Savoy, from the Italian royal house, was chosen, with a democratic conception of the role of the monarchy, who arrived in Spain in late 1870. However, he always faced opposition from the Carlists, the Church, and those who remained faithful to the Bourbons. On his side, many Democrats and some Republicans promoted uprisings in favor of the republic. In addition, the new king had to deal with the outbreak of two armed conflicts: an insurrection on the island of Cuba and a new Carlist War.
Overwhelmed with problems, Amadeo abdicated the throne in February 1873.
The First Republic
Upon the king’s abdication, the Cortes voted by a large majority for the proclamation of the Republic. But this result did not reflect real support for the new form of government, since the majority of the deputies in the chamber were monarchists. The Republic was born with little chance of success, although it was received with enthusiasm by the popular sectors of the cities. Republicans had an extensive program of social reforms and tried to organize a federal state, dividing legislative powers between the federal government, the federated republics, and the communes. However, the Republic faced the Carlist guerrillas and the Cuban insurrection, which grew in importance. The divisions among Republicans hindered the actions of their own governments, and the more radical Republicans precipitated social unrest and uprisings, such as the Cartagena Canton, which proclaimed itself independent. In addition, the monarchists did not accept the Republican regime and began to conspire to restore the monarchy in Alfonso, the son of Isabel II.
In January 1874, a coup led by General Pavia dissolved the Cortes and gave the presidency to Serrano.
The Restoration of the Monarchy (1874-1898)
The Canovist System
The new political system shaped by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo had a conservative character and was based on a liberal parliamentary system, but hardly democratic. There were two major parties:
- The Conservative Party, led by Cánovas, was a supporter of political stagnation, the defense of the Church, and the social order.
- The Liberal Party, led by Mateo Sagasta and Práxedes, seemed inclined to a more democratic, reformist, and socially progressive line.
However, both were parties of notables, essentially ideologically similar, and assumed two complementary roles in the consensual system. The system’s stability was fostered by drafting a new constitution (1876), which was distinctly moderate. The pacification of the country also contributed, which was achieved after the end of the Carlist War and the Cuban insurrection.
The Alternation of Power
Conservatives and Liberals agreed to alternate the exercise of power (peaceful rotation), controlling Spanish political life. This was possible because the government’s formation had nothing to do with winning elections, but with the party chosen by the king to form the government. This situation was made possible by a corrupt electoral system that manipulated elections and did not hesitate to falsify records or buy votes. Furthermore, all kinds of coercive practices were used on the electorate, taking advantage of the political and economic influence that certain individuals exercised over society, especially in rural areas (caciques).