The Spanish War of Independence and the Constitution of 1812
The War for Independence and the Constitution of 1812
The Abdications of Bayonne and the Start of the War
In the late 18th century, Spain faced political turmoil under the reign of Charles IV. Manuel Godoy, the King’s minister, faced increasing opposition, leading to divisions within the royal family and nobility. In 1808, the Mutiny of Aranjuez resulted in Godoy’s removal. However, the situation remained unstable, and Napoleon Bonaparte saw an opportunity to intervene in Spanish affairs. He summoned the Spanish royal family to Bayonne, where he orchestrated the famous Abdications of Bayonne. Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII, who in turn abdicated in favor of Napoleon. Napoleon then placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne, triggering the War of Independence.
The War’s Progression and the Role of the Cortes
Following the abdications, a Regency Council was formed to govern Spain in the absence of a legitimate monarch. Popular uprisings against French rule erupted, most notably in Madrid on May 2, 1808. The rebellion spread, leading to the formation of local defense juntas and a central Supreme Junta. The Junta aimed to convene the Cortes (parliament) and establish an alliance with England against France. The war unfolded in three phases: an initial period of Spanish offensives and French counteroffensives (1808-1810), a period of guerrilla warfare (1810-1812), and finally, an Anglo-Spanish offensive that drove the French from the Iberian Peninsula (1812-1814).
Political Divisions and the Constitution of 1812
During the war, Spanish society was divided into several factions. The afrancesados supported Joseph Bonaparte, believing that liberal reforms could be achieved under his rule. The patriots opposed French rule and sought the return of Ferdinand VII. Among the patriots, there were divisions between absolutists, who desired the restoration of the old regime, and liberals, who sought to implement liberal reforms. The Cortes, forced to relocate several times due to the war, eventually settled in Cádiz, the only major Spanish city not occupied by the French. Cádiz, a cosmopolitan port city with a strong bourgeois presence, became a center of liberal thought. The Cortes, with a liberal majority, drafted the Constitution of 1812.
The Constitution of 1812 (La Pepa)
The Constitution of 1812, also known as “La Pepa”, was heavily influenced by the French Constitution of 1791 and incorporated a wide range of rights, including freedom of the press, association, and expression, as well as the right to property. It declared Spain a constitutional monarchy based on the principle of national sovereignty, with power residing in the nation. The Constitution established the separation of powers, with the executive power vested in the King, the legislative power in the Cortes, and the judicial power in the courts. It also established a unicameral Cortes elected by indirect universal male suffrage (for men over 25). The Constitution abolished feudal privileges, the Inquisition, and internal customs barriers, promoting free trade. It represented a significant step towards dismantling the old regime and establishing a liberal order in Spain.
The Return of Absolutism
In 1814, with the war nearing its end, the Cortes in Cádiz dissolved, promising to reconvene in Madrid under Ferdinand VII’s rule. However, upon his return, Ferdinand VII issued the Manifesto of the Persians, abolishing the Constitution of 1812 and restoring absolutist rule. Despite its short-lived implementation, the Constitution of 1812 held immense symbolic value for Spanish liberalism and served as a reference point for future liberal movements in Spain.